数学教育概论总结

数学教育概论总结（共6篇）

1.数学教育概论总结 篇一

《数学教育概论》学习心得

这个学期，我们学习了《数学教育概论》这门课。通过这一学期的学习以及练习试讲，我有很大的收获。

《数学教育概论》主要分为理论篇和实践篇。本书一共有十二章。第一章为绪论。第二章——第八章为理论篇。第九章——第十二章为实践篇。理论篇与实践篇相铺相成，相互影响。

有人认为“数学老师是讲数学的，只要懂得数学就一定能够上好数学课，何必要学数学教育呢？”其实不然，数学教师的数学专业基础是根本，不是全部，作为一名数学老师，我们必须学习数学教育，关注数学教育，研究数学教育。忽视数学基础和忽视数学教育研究都是错误的。其实数学教育研究的东西也不是一成不变的，它是发展的，是与时俱进的。首先，数学教育研究关注的对象年龄范围在逐渐扩大，研究已经涉及各个年龄层次和群体的数学教育问题。其次，数学教育研究关注的问题范围在拓展，研究涉及的邻域相当广泛，数学教育研究的方法也是多样性的。

通过对理论篇的学习，我知道，数学教育是与时俱进的，数学在我们的生活中无处不在，数学在潜移默化的影响着我们的生活，思维，做事。理论篇与实践篇相铺相成，互相影响的。

实践篇主要介绍了怎么评课，如何写教学设计，以及一些教学基本技能。都是很实用的知识。

在评课方面：通过听（导入，展开，重难点，语言，思路等）、看（教态，板书，课堂气氛等）、想（目的明确？结构科学？积极性？等）、记（教学实录、教学点评等）这四方面进行观摩，从以下五个方面进行评课：从教学目标上去分析、从处理教材方面分析、分析教学程序（教学思路、结构安排等）、分析教学方法、手段，以及教学基本功。在两天的见习中，我还学会了如何用三性（知识性、个性、创造性）和三动（互动、主动、能动）去评价一节课。基于这些理论知识，以及见习是得到实践。我已基本掌握了评价一节课的流程。知道如何评价一堂课，可以反其到而行之。我如何评价其他老师上课，当我上课的时候，别的老师也会按照这样的思路来评价我的课。所以，以后我上课的时候也要注意这些方面。这样可能在上课的时候注意更多方面。更完善自己。

如何写教学设计方面：教学目标这一块，不似之前那般以教师为主体，如今的教学目标要以学生为主体，一般不写“使学生......”、“培养学生......”而是“通过学习，能说出......”也要避免那些模糊不清的词，要用明确的词。教学过程中，创设情境不能为了创设而创设，所创设的情境要贴切现实，联系实际，要与所学的知识点紧密相关。数学来源于生活，也要服务于生活。还有要注重教材资源的利用，例题与课后练习是专家经过反复研究而整理出来的，作为教师需反复琢磨。知识补充，练习补充要充分考虑，不能脱离教材，完全弃之不用。整个教学过程思路要严谨、科学、不能逻辑不清。如果自己都理不清楚思路，又怎么能清楚的讲授呢？④小结是一节课的总结，不可缺少，无论形式如何多样，目的都是让学生了解这节课学了什么。让他们自身意识到这堂课学了什么。⑤多媒体的作用是为了辅助教学的，科学、合理的使用为宜，不能过分依赖多媒体，数学的学习，尤其是几何的学习示范性很重要。

上课方面：作为一名教师，教态，精神都很重要，最重要的是还要有足够的耐心，一遍又一遍的演示、讲解要做到不厌其烦。教师还要善于启发，引导学生，提高学习的兴趣。语言不能太平淡，要充分调动课堂气氛，死气沉沉的课堂是学不到什么东西的，作为学生的我们喜欢幽默、风趣、激情等等特点的老师，当我们作为老师的时候，就可以换位思考，如何做到学生不讨厌。只有学生乐于接受的老师，学生才能学到更多东西，老师才能发挥他的能力。

学了《数学教育概论》，无论是理论基础还是实践都有了很大的提升，也为我今后的教育事业打下了基础。

2.数学教育概论总结 篇二

关键词：小学数学,归纳推理,教学设计

一、小学数学归纳推理教学简析

小学数学的学习是以活动经验为基础, 逻辑思维为核心的认知过程.归纳推理教学, 是指符合学生的心理特征和智力发展水平, 以学生已有的活动经验为基础, 由教师组织适当活动, 激发兴趣, 启发思考, 引导自主探索, 使学生在归纳过程中建构数学知识, 提高数学表征技能, 学习解决问题的基本策略, 发展逻辑推理能力.

二、小学数学归纳推理教学设计

(一) 教学设计的理念

归纳推理教学存在于整个小学阶段, 是有计划, 有系统, 分层次, 遵循小学思维认知发展规律的教学安排.其理论依据主要为认知心理理论, 在归纳的开始和持续过程中, 只有主体处于唤醒状态, 才能提供注意的特定方向.唤醒程度与思维发展和认知心理规律有关, 代表理论为皮亚杰的认知发展理论和朱智贤 (1998) 的研究, 得出在小学教学中, 初入学的儿童在认识和理解事物时常常不能抓住本质联系, 不能从许多特殊中概括出一般.通过教学, 可以使小学生的归纳推理能力伴随知识经验而发展.总的来说, 归纳推理教学通过将研究对象分解为各个组成部分, 考察部分的地位、作用, 撇开事物的非本质属性进行抽象概括, 以整体把握事物之间的相互联系和制约关系.

(二) 教学过程设计

1. 认知唤醒, 引起注意

教师通过恰当的方式, 引导学生进行有目的、有价值的注意.教师必须明确观察目的、内容和方法, 即学生观察所能达到的预期效果;注意主体内容的选择;给学生多方面、多角度观察方式的选择.教师给予学生有针对性的认知唤醒引起注意, 开启归纳推理教学.

2. 联系新旧, 统和整体

在唤醒学生认知的基础上, 引导学生联系新旧知识, 以分析与比较的方法, 归纳整理出事物之间的相似性以及差异性.从区分具体事物逐步发展到区分抽象的异同, 从区分个别逐步发展到整体, 最终将直接的感知转化到抽象的整体, 提高逻辑判断水平.

3. 发散思维, 应用解决

通过习题解答、书面作业等方式让学生把所学知识应用于实际, 建构完整的数学知识, 提高数学表征技能, 锻炼发散思维, 真正领悟归纳的方法, 能够通过独立的推理解决问题, 发展逻辑推理能力.

(三) 教学案例探讨

归纳推理的教学设计, 根据小学儿童思维认知发展理论, 结合新课程标准学段划分, 选取三个代表案例.

归纳推理的初级阶段 (低学段) 依据感官知觉到的数学对象表面, 通过枚举法归纳推理获得结论.所获结论的过程不能准确地用语言、文字或加以逻辑说明, 处于缄默认知状态.教学阶段可分为阶段一 (以大量较明显规律的例子, 使学生能够用自己的语言讲述出来) , 阶段二 (以实物为载体, 让学生进行分类、排序, 初步掌握观察的方法, 养成观察的习惯) .

案例1观察表格, 列举与表格有相同规律的5个数.

归纳推理的完善阶段 (中学段)

通过低学段积累的活动经验, 进行简单系统的归纳推理学习.内容上安排侧重于数量性质特征 (之前积累的数学经验) 和图形性质特征 (之前多以实物为载体) .

案例2将以下算式计算结果, 设计两类划分方法归类.

如.依据:奇数 (1) (2) (5) (6)

偶数 (3) (4) (7) (8)

归纳推理的前演绎阶段 (高学段)

结合小学生数、形知识的扩展, 归纳能力的提高, 设计足够多的、有典型性的特例, 让学生深化分析、比较、推理规律, 能对获得的猜想进行正误检验.

案例3填空:

说明:6=4×2-2, 10=4×3-2, 14=4×4-2, 18=4×5-2, 22=4×6-2, 每个数都是序号的4倍减2.经检验第一个数:4×1-2=2, 得出猜想正确的结论.

案例4“如果两个数都不是5的倍数, 那么它们的和也不是5的倍数.”你认为这个规律对吗?如7与9都不是5的倍数, 它们的和16也不是5的倍数.

说明:做任何推理时都要有根据作为支撑, 证明理论错误时也需要有反例支持.如:7和8都不是5的倍数, 但它们的和15是5的倍数.

三、结语

对于小学数学归纳推理教学需要长期且不断的探索, 才能找寻到适合学生发展数学逻辑推理的方法, 应遵循学校、教师及其学生本身的特点、规律, 选择合理的归纳推理教学内容, 不失创新和改进的尝试, 让学生欣然接受的同时达到归纳推理教学目标, 促进学生更好地发展.

参考文献

[1]史宁中.教育与数学教育[M].长春:东北师范大学出版社, 2006.

[2]张天孝.数学教学教例与教法[M].北京:人民日报出版社, 1998.

3.数学论文写作概论 篇三

1遵循的原则

数学教学研究论文内容的选择，源于数学教育改革和数学教学研究。

2.在矛盾中思考

在上述原则指导下，论文内容的选择，应在矛盾中思考。

数学科学在本世纪得到空前发展，特别是数学各学科、数学与其他学科之间的相互渗透空前加强I数学的应用不仅形成了一大批新的应用数学学科(如信息沦、控制论、运筹学、

应用概率统计、经济数学、金融数学-?-)，而且结合计算机的应用，形成数学技术。数学不仅仍然发挥基础和应用基础的巨大作用.而且成为现代杜会中不可替代的关键技术.成为综合国力的一个重要组成部分。

但是，在社会上多数人还不理解，忽视数学的臣太作用，对数学教育认识不足.重视不够。表现在：

(1)高考的体制和社会压力，导致中学数学教背围绕高考转.似乎中学生学习数学屉为r升大学，不愿升学的就不愿学习数学，这样-不论升学与否，学生的数学素质不能得到真正的培养;

(2)进^大学数学专业的学生，常常显得并不具备能较好理解数学实质的素养}

(3)大学非数学专、世的学生进入专业以及参加工作后.缺乏应用数学解决问题的意识和能力

(4)数学抽象、难度大，如何达到数学大众化，等等。

从矛盾中.作者会发现问题.会认识到：要充分发挥数学在现代化建设中的作用，为国家民族的振兴和富强做出贡献，最根本的有效的办法是加强数学教育改革。

从现代科技、社会经济发展的需要与数学教育状况的矛盾中思考，那么数学教育改革就是一篇大文章。

3从新的角度研究数学教育改革

我们知道，数学教育是研究教育规律的科学，是数学与教育学、心理学、逻辑学、哲学、数学思想方法论等多学科交叉的学问，我们已经取得r数学教育和改革的经验。但是，今后应当主要从科学教育的角度研究数学教育改革。改变以往就数学论数学教育的状况。即：

(1)从一个新的角度 一战略的高度和社会发展的角度来考察我国的：

①数学教育的目标}

②数学教育的课程体系}

③数学教育的教学内容;

④数学教育的教学基奉方法。

(2)从新的观点出发，检查过去，哪些是对的，哪些是不对的，如何按照新的观点加以充实、发扬和改革。

只要作者从新的角度出发，认真探索、刻苦钻研，新的认识、新的研究过程、新的结果就会孕育在其中丁。

例如：

数学教育目的的研究}

数学教育思想的研究I

数学课程设置的研究{

数学教书育人的研究;

数学教育与提高国民素质的研究;

数学教育目标与教育|半价的研究。

以上范围的内容，都是重要的研究课题。

这一类论文的要求是很高的，它不仅能反映数学教育的新思想、新观点、新方法，具有科学性和实用性，更重要的在于其较高的理论价值。有的论文，引起国内外的关注。 例如，已发表的论文：

《面向21世纪的中国数学教育改革》;

《面向新世纪的高中数学课》;

《关于数学教育目的问题的若干理论探讨》;

《数学教学要着眼于人的素质的提高》;

《高师数学教育专业的课程设置与教材建设》等论文.就很好地体现了这点。

二、数学教学研究

随着现代数学的发展及数学教育改革的探化，必然给数学教学研究带来新的.研究课题。因此.论文内容的选择范围也是十分广阔的。

1揭示教育、教学规律

所谓教育规律.nT以概括为：按照教育目的和培养目标进行管

理;按厢认识事物的规律进行教学;接照学生的年龄和个性特点进

行教育。

教学规律.我创的学者提出了四条：

(1)教学受社会发偎、人类认识活动和青少年身心发展的制约的规律

(2)教‘j学统，教师的j二导作用和学牛的自觉性、主动性相结合的规律}

(3)教学与教育、占有知识和发展能力的统 及相互促进的规律

(4)教学过程中各种对立点之间和工作环常之间组成完整序列和协调统一的规律。 关于上述规律，是作者，特别是广大教师首先必须正确认识和把握这些规律.这是论文内容选择的依据，撰写教学研究论文要遵循这些规律，体现这些规律。同时，还要结合现代数学的特点(数学内部各分支间相互渗透、数学与其他科学相互渗透、计算机的应用)，进一步探索，揭示新规律。

2教材内容的研究

我国现行的大、中学校数学教材，大都是从前苏联50年代的教材演化而来，体系和内容处理手法没有随科学技术和社会发展而来一个大的改革，主要做了一些增删且主要是删减工作。因此，随着高新科技和社会经济的发展，教材内容、体系的具体改革势在必行，是一项细致、艰苦而富有创造性的工作。

(1)教育教学基本要求

19 94年国家教委印发T《普通高等师范学校数学教育专业(本科)教育教学基本要求》，它是在总结我国高中阶段数学教育师资培养的历史经验、分析目前高中阶段数学教育的实际状况、预测本世纪束至下世纪初.高中阶段数学教育改革需求的基础上.为使高师本科数学教育专业毕业生形成应具备的知识结构和能力结构而设计的重大研究课题。

1)三个认知层次的古义

在数学教育学科知识与能力方面的基本要求中.按照“掌握”、“理解”、“r解”.三个基本认知层次列举出必备的知识要隶和能力要隶。

粗略地说，：个认知层趺的含义是：

(I)r解

r解是关于认知对象的比较概略的整体性的汰识。它的内容是.认识和把握认知对象的结构框架及邻缘关系l它的任务是，扩展知能储备.开阔科学视野。这足一种初级的认知层次。

②理解

理解是关于认知对象的比较深人的本质性的认识。它的内容是，在“了解”层次的基础上，认识认知对象的结构细部及各部间的内在联系，把握来龙去脉。它的任务是弄通基本理论、领会基本知识和形成基本技能。这是一种基本的认知层次。

⑨掌握

掌握是关于认知对象的比较完整的综合性的认识。它的内容是，在“理解”层次的基础上，把握在不同条件下认知对象结构的分解、变换、组合，以及由此变化而产生的新的认知因素，并能自觉运用这些变化去达到新的认识目的。这一认知层次的任务是，形成运用“三基”解决某些相关问题的知能储备。这是一种高级的认知层次。

有时，可使用不同的程度副词将一个基本认知层次再分成几个小的层次。例如： 初步了解，深入理解.熟练掌握等。

2)教材内容的基本要求

数学教育学科知识与能力方面的基本要求是，将整体教材内容归纳为五类并列出具体目录，标出认知层次。其中目录为

分析类课程的基本要求;

代数类课程的基本要求}

几何类课程的基本要求;

应用数学课程的基本要求I

数学教育粪课程的基本要求。

在上述“基本要求”的指导下.如何确定每门课程的内容和结构}如何体现高师数学教育的特点f如何搞好教材建设等许多具体问题都是论文内容选择广阔领域。

《面向中学改革师范院校数学专业课程设置》;

《高师数学教育专业(本科)毕业生应具有的知识结构和能力

《高师数学教育专业课程设置构想》等高水平的论文，以及《21 世纪中国数学教育展望》、《数学教育学》等著作.都充分体现丁这贯穿于教学过程的始终，其核心是把教学过程看成是一种特殊的认识过程，视学生为教学活动的主体，教师根据教学目的、学生的学习规律和知识的内部联系安排教学过程，充分调动学生的思维和学习的自觉性、积极性，引导他们生动活泼地学习，融会贯通地掌握知识，形成能力.发展智力。

事实上，每一位老师在课堂教学中，都在自觉或不自觉地运用启发式教学方法进行教学。 但是，启发式的教学思想理论体系，启发式内部的规律，在什么地方启发.启发什么，怎样启发等理论研究和肩发式教学方法的研究有待解决，这都是论文内容选择领域。例如： 《略论启发式数学教学的基本要求》等论文说明了这一点。

(2)加强辅助教学手段

在启发式教学思想的指导下，在课堂教学过程中.加强辅助教学手段，即使用教学仪器，特别是电救、计算机等教学手段都是十分必要的。为什么叫辅助教学?这是周为课堂教学思想是启发式思想，实行启发式教学方法，引入教学辅助工具(CAI)等正是为了启发在点于上，更好地达到教学目的。正如有的老师在总结中体会到：

(D CAl利于学生的主体参与和困材施教l

⑧有助于菜幽数学思想方法的渗透;

③有助于辅助理解某些抽象的数学概念，展现知识的形成过程。

4教学内容的研究

5数学知识纵横谈

例如：

《积分运算中应注意的几个问题》;

《一致收敛序列与广义积分》;

《一类特殊的线性变换》;

《关于多项式最大公园式矩阵求法的补充》{

4.农学概论专题总结 篇四

作物：指野生植物经人类不断地选择驯化利用，演化而来的具有经济价值的栽培作物。分类：粮食作物：禾谷类；豆类；薯芋类工业原料作物：纤维类；油料类；糖料类；其它

绿肥及饲料作物：苜蓿、紫云英、草木犀

药用植物：红花、甘草、麻黄、雪菊、枸杞、雪莲等

温度：喜温玉米、水稻

耐寒冬小麦

对光的反应力：长日照油菜、麦类

短日照玉米、棉花、大豆

中性日照

定日照甘蔗

对co2的反应力：C4玉米、高粱

2、对环境的适应性C3

对光的喜好：喜光棉花

耐阴大豆、红薯

对水分的喜好程度：水生：绿萍

耐涝

耐旱高粱

高度进展：高秆（高粱）、矮秆（豆类、麦类）

根系：直根系、须根系

作物产量：单位土地面积上作物产品的重量。

生物产量：作物生育期间生产和积累的有机物的总量。

作物产量组成经济产量：栽培所需的主产品量。

经济系数：生物产量转化为经济产量的比率（生物产量/经济产量）。

作物产量的构成因素 ：玉米穗数、穗粒数、粒重

棉花亩株数、单株结铃数、单铃重

提升作物产量潜力的途径：①选育高光效优良品种

②改革耕作制度

③采用合理的栽培技术措施

④提高光合效率

⑤控制逆境

生长阶段时期：生长期、稳定期、缓慢期。

生育期：作物出苗到成熟所经历的天数。

生育时期：作物受环境因素和遗传因素的影响，在外部形态和内部生理特征上发生显著变化的时段。

单作型：一年一季一熟

种植模式单作多熟：一年坐收两次

复种：同一田块上一年内按顺序种植2季或以上的作物。

复种指数：全年收获面积与占耕地面积的百分比。

休闲：指在可以种植的季节只耕不种或不耕不种的方式。

单作：同一田地种植一种作物的种植方式。间作：同一田块上同年内分行或分带相间种植两种或两种以上的作物。

混作：在同一地块上同期混合种植两种货款两种以上的作物。

套作：在前季作物生长后期的株行间播种（或移栽）后季作物。

轮作：同一地块上按一定顺序轮换种植不同作物的方式。

倒茬：不同作物间的轮换种植方式。

轮作作用：①均衡利用土壤水分和养分

②改善土壤理化性质，调节土壤肥力

③减少作物的病虫草害

④消除作物中的有毒有害物质

连作：在同一田块上连年种植形同作物的种植方式。

小麦专题

发育阶段：春化阶段、光照阶段

春化：小麦种子萌动后，需要一定时期持续的低温条件，这一时期称为春化阶段。分类：

冬性品种：0~5℃，经≥30天才能完全春化。

按时间长短和温度高低半冬性品种：0~7℃，经15~30天进入春化阶段。

春性品种：0~12℃，经5~15天进入春化阶段。

光照阶段：是小麦一生中对光照长短最敏感的时期。

反应迟钝型：8~12h光照，经16天以上

按光照时长分反应中等型：12h光照，经24天

反应敏感型：>12h光照 30~40天

从地下分蘖节处长出

小麦分蘖壮苗的标志

有利于小麦越冬

小麦的背地性曲折：在小麦的生长过程中，由于趋光生长作用，小麦会在弯曲部位继续生长。提高小麦穗粒的途径：①科学运用肥水

②适当控制群体发展

③改善通风透光条件，增加光合生长率

④保证拔节期间有良好的有机、无机营养水平，减少小穗、小花的退

化。

小麦产量构成=亩穗数*穗粒数*粒重

土壤准备：齐、平、松、碎、净、墒

种子准备：确定小麦品种类型：选良种种子发

芽试验

等行距条播：24行（1.5cm行距）不利于中耕施肥，不是与高产麦的条播。宽窄行条播：条宽20cm，窄10cm，行相互间隔，精细的田间管理有利于中耕、施肥、喷药改善田间通风透光条件，避免冷、碱，滋生杂草

机械播种：播行端直，下籽均匀，播深一致，覆土良好；接行准确，播后镇压，行距稳定，田边整齐。

冬麦中期田间管理的主要任务:在前期管理的基础上，实施以水肥为中心，按苗情进行合理

促控。

中期田间管理的主要措施：①追肥：重施拔节肥；酌情施孕穗肥。

②灌水：灌好拔节水、孕穗水

③喷施矮壮素

④化学除草

⑤防治病虫害

中期小麦生长的特点：①匍匐转向直立，随后拔节

②分蘖逐渐停止，数量达到最多

③主茎和大孽生长加速，并向成穗方向发展

④小分蘖叶数少，无自己的根系，生长逐渐停止，成为无效分蘖⑤中等蘖视条件即可向成穗发展，又可无效蘖发展。

冬季前及冬季田边管理

主要任务：促使全苗、匀苗、齐苗、壮苗有足够的分蘖，确保安全过冬。

初生根、次生根、叶片数量增多

小麦的越冬期：年前气温2℃时，小麦停止生长，直到年后2℃出现小麦再现生长，年前2℃

与年后2℃之间的时间，称为小麦的越冬期。

主要措施：查苗补种、因苗管理、临冬前追肥、适时冬灌、越冬保苗

玉米专题

玉米栽培亚种

马齿型：粒似马齿，扁平，顶部成熟后凹下去。穗大，产量高，含直链淀粉多，品质差。硬粒型：粒小，圆形，色泽光亮，含支链淀粉多，品质好，产量低。

爆裂型：用于加工爆米花。

甜质型：粒皱缩不平。

蜡质型：籽粒全是支链淀粉，粘性大，无光泽。

甜粉型：籽粒上部都是支链淀粉，下部都是直链淀粉，作为育种材料。

粉质型：籽粒、果穗外形似硬粒，籽粒内全部是直链淀粉，适合做淀粉和酿酒。有桴型：籽粒外有稃壳，顶部有芒，属原始类型。

大喇叭口期：50%玉米棒三叶开始甩出但未展开，心叶丛生，上部中空，上部展开叶与未展

开叶之间，在叶鞘部位能能抹出发软而有弹性的雄穗，叶外形如喇叭时，称为大

喇叭口期。

进入此时期，必须进行灌水和施肥。

生育期：从出苗到籽粒成熟期间所经历的天数。

生育阶段：出苗期——拔节期——抽穗期——吐丝期——开花期——成熟期

若玉米籽粒尖端未有黑层，则仍处于灌浆期。

玉米根的组成：初生根——吸收水和养分供给植株

次生根——拔节

气生根（支持根）——抽雄、孕穗；要求供给多的营养；固定

玉米的秃顶缺粒的防止途径：①选用杂种优势强的丰产品种；

②加强田间管理，合理密植；

③充分供应水肥，尤其是在抽雄、扬花期不能遭遇高温干旱；

④实施人工辅助授粉，结合化学调控。

秃顶原因：高温时花粉失活，无法正常受精。

播前准备：①选好地，施好肥，灌足底墒；

②选用优良品种，进行种子处理；

③确定合适的密度和播种方式。

播种的质量要求：①播行端直 ②下籽均匀 ③播深一致 ④播种量准确 ⑤接行准确 ⑥行距

一致

苗期管理的中心任务：保证全苗、齐苗基础上，控制地上部分生长，使玉米有较好的发育。中耕和分苗：控制苗期水肥，使土壤疏松、根系下扎。

穗期管理中心任务：水肥合理运用，合理追肥和灌水

灌水2~3次，头水：拔节前后；二水;头水后10天；三水：二水后10~15

天。

棉花专题 亚洲棉（中棉）：抗病、抗旱、抗虫

非洲棉（草棉）：铃小，圆形，表面光滑，无凹点，产量低，品质差，抗旱，早熟

棉花的栽培种陆地棉：源自美国，纤维细长，品质好，占棉花总产量的90%以上。海岛棉：品质很高

棉花的生育特性：

（一）喜温好光

（二）无限生长习性，株型可塑性大

（三）再生能力强，结铃具有自动调节性

（四）营养生长和生殖生长并进时间长

毛籽：轧击纤维之后，表面覆盖有短绒的种子。

光籽:无短绒覆盖的种子。

端毛籽：一端或两端有短绒覆盖的种子。

籽棉：棉籽和种壳上的纤维，统称为籽棉。

皮棉：籽棉脱下纤维，称为皮棉。

衣分：皮棉占籽棉的百分率。

籽指：百粒棉籽重量。

※棉花蕾铃脱落和保蕾的途径

1、蕾铃脱落的规律

⑴蕾铃脱落比例：落铃率高于落蕾率，比例约3∶2；

⑵蕾铃脱落的日龄：一般现蕾后10~12天脱落最多，20天以上的大蕾脱落较少；开花后3~8

天幼铃易脱落，10天以上的脱落较少；

⑶蕾铃脱落的部位：一般下部果枝蕾铃脱落的较少，上部果枝脱落多，远离主干的蕾铃脱落

较多，立主干近的脱落较少；

⑷蕾铃脱落时期：初花期以前很少脱落，以后逐渐增多，开花结铃盛期达到最多，以后逐渐

减少。

⑸不同品种类型蕾铃差异：陆地棉脱落率高，中棉次之，海岛棉最低。

2、蕾铃脱落的原因

⑴生理脱落：①有几养料不足或分布不当

②激素的作用：生长素、赤霉素、细胞分裂素（促生长）

乙烯、脱落酸（抑制生长）

③外界条件对生理脱落的影响（环境条件、栽培技术）

⑵病虫害：刺式口器 间接造成植物枯黄，叶绿素损失。

⑶机械损害及其他：干热、干旱——受精不良，蒸腾作用增强。

3、保蕾保铃的途径

⑴选用成铃性强、抗性强的高产优质品种；

⑵改善水肥条件，及时供应水肥；

⑶合理密植，做好化学调控、整枝等工作；

⑷加强病虫综合防治，减少田间作业的机械性损伤；

⑸防止高温、干旱、大风等自然灾害。

棉花的施肥技术：⑴增施有机肥

⑵重施基肥（犁地前施的肥料）

⑶合理追肥（磷肥利用率低，易被土壤固定）

棉花灌溉要求：播前储备灌溉；生育期灌溉

棉花的调控技术

人工整枝和化学调控

化学调控：通过调控植物内源激素水平来控制植物生长发育。

1、缩节胺的调控

⑴原理：缩节胺是一种植物生长延缓剂，在棉株体内能阻碍赤霉素的合成，改变赤霉

素的含量水平和内源激素系统平衡，因而可以定向控制茎、枝、叶的生长，有效

地抑制棉株纵横伸展，定向诱导棉株生长发育。

⑵主要生理作用：①可有效延缓主茎和果枝节间伸长

②具有显著的促根效应

③可以调节棉叶功能（提高偶叶片中叶绿素含量）

⑶缩节胺化学调控的原则：①早、轻、勤

②分段化调

③化学调控与肥水调控结合④因时、因地、因苗调控

2、乙烯的使用

催化细胞成熟，使棉花吐絮集中。

使用要求：①在枯霜前15~20天使用

②喷施前连续20天温度达20℃以上，且在中午喷施

③80%的棉铃铃期在40~45天

④喷洒均匀，尽可能喷在棉铃上

3、棉花“矮、密、早、膜”技术路线（栽培技术内涵）

矮：在合理密植的前提下，控制棉花的株型，达到棉花紧凑矮壮，茎粗节短（措施：适当推迟头水时间，及时打顶，施氮肥）

密：合理密植 栽培技术路线的基础，针对新疆气候，结合棉花品种特性，培育密

度高、分布均匀、生长整齐的高产群体，增加单位面积的总铃数。

早：针对新疆棉区无霜期短，热量资源相对不足的与侯特点，选用早熟品种，采

取促进生长的方法，力争壮苗早发，早现蕾开花，早结铃吐絮，实现棉花早熟、优质、高产。

膜：地膜覆盖栽培是实现棉花早熟的总要条件，由于地膜覆盖的增湿保墒效应，增强了土壤微生物的活力，加速土壤有效养分的氧化，增加棉花根系的生理功

能，促进地上部分的生长发育，为早结伏桃、多结伏桃创造条件。

在“矮、密、早、膜”栽培技术体系中，“密”是核心，只有合理密植，才能获得高产；

“矮”是前提，矮密结合能充分利用土地和空间；“早”是充分的利用生长季

节和经济用水；“矮、密、早、膜”是充分利用新疆光热水土资源，达到高产

高效优质的手段。

水稻的三性：感温性——水稻因温度高低的影响而改变其发育转变，缩短或延长生育期的特

性。

感光性——因日照长短影响而改变其发育转变，缩短或延长生育期的特性。基本营养生长性——进入生殖生长之前，在高温和短日照处理下，都不能缩短的营养生长期，这种特性称为基本营养生长性。

分蘖期落水晒田的作用

⑴促使后期分蘖加速死亡，使养分向效分蘖集中，提高分蘖成穗率；

⑵抑制部分生长，使糖类在茎秆和叶鞘中积累，增加半纤维含量，增强抗倒伏能力；⑶促使根部发育，提高根系活力；

5.轮机概论总结 篇五

2.换气过程(Gas exchange process)：每个工作循环必须排出废气、吸入新鲜空气，从排气

过程、扫气过程到进气过程结束的整个气体交换过程。换气质量影响功率、经济性、可靠性及排气污染。

3.换气形式：(1)简单横流扫气(2)回流扫气(3)半回流扫气(4)排气阀-扫气口直流流扫气

4.废气涡轮增压(Exhaust gas tubocharge)：将柴油机排出的废气送入涡轮机高速回转带动

离心式压气机工作，从而提高进气压力以实现增压的方式。在船上废气涡轮增压器俗称透平。废气涡轮增压的两种基本方式：(1)定压涡轮增压（涡轮前排气压力基本稳定，涡轮工作稳定、效率高。）(2)脉冲涡轮增压（充分利用定压能和脉冲能，可不设辅助鼓风机/泵。）

5.一、燃油系统： 燃油系统由注入、贮存、驳运、净化和供给五个基本环节组成。

二、润滑系统：1.增压器润滑系统2.气缸油润滑系统3.曲柄箱油润滑系统

三、冷却系统：任务——把冷却介质送到受热的部件，将多余的热量带走;按冷却介质分类：1，风冷2，油冷，水冷；按工作特点分类：1，开式冷却系统2，闭式冷却系统3，集中式冷却系统。

6.主机遥控系统应具有的功能：1.换向逻辑功能2.起动逻辑功能3.重复起动逻辑功能4.重起动逻辑功能5.慢转起动逻辑功能6.加速率限制功能7.负荷程序功能8.运行中的换向与制动逻辑功能9.自动避开临界转速功能10.应急操作功能11.安全保护功能12.系统功能模拟功能

7.1.暖机2.各系统的准备3.转车、冲车、试车

8.1、直接传动：优点：结构简单、工作可靠、传动效率高、工作寿命长、维护管理方便;

缺点：只适用于低速主机，高速时螺旋桨效率低，使用定矩浆的主机必须可换向；低速时性能差；非设计工况时经济性差.2、间接传动:优点：主机可以不受螺旋桨要求的低速限制；主机可不用换向；有利于多机并车运行及设置轴带发电机；轴系布置灵活。机动性提高;缺点：结构复杂，传动效率低

3、Z型传动:优点：(1)省舵、尾轴管，船尾形状简单，阻力小(2)操纵性能好，可原地回转3)与中高速机连用，且不设单独的减速装置；(4)主机不用换向，寿命延长.缺点：传递功率小，只使用小船上或做大船的侧推



4、电力传动:优点：机舱布置灵活；

 可选用中、高速不可逆转原动机；

 可均匀、大范围地调节推进电动机转速,低速经济性好；

 船舶操纵性好，倒车功率大，反转迅速，可靠性机动性高；

 推进电动机对外界负荷的变化适应性好，可以短时间堵转；

 可消除螺旋桨对原动机的振动冲击，船舶振动大大减轻；

 在柴油机—电力推进装置中，可采用分机组修理的方法，以

缩短因船舶修理而造成的停航时间。

缺点：传递效率低，控制复杂，维护管理难度大

9.1.容积式泵：通过运动部件的位移使泵工作空间容积周期性地发生变化来吸排液体。2.叶轮式泵(Impeller pump)：通过工作叶轮带动液体高速转动，使液体的能量增加，然后再将动能转换为压力能，从而完成吸排液体的作用.3.喷射泵(Ejection pump)：通过喷射工作流体所产生的高速射流，吸引周围流体，进行动量交换，把动能传给输送的液体，再将动能转换为压力能，从而达到输送流体的目的。4.电磁泵(Electromagnetism pump)：利用电磁力输送液态金属的泵，用于原子能船锅炉的循环泵。

6.翻译概论总结 篇六

1.Roman Jakobson’s tripartite classification: intralingual translation(rewording), interlingual translation(translation proper), and intersemiotic translation(transmutation)

2.text types: technical, institutional, literary translation

3.outline of major theories of translation:(1)Chronologically(by the time of their birth or occurrence): the philological, hermeneutic, linguistic, communicative, sociosemiotic, skopos, manipulative, norm, post-structuralist, postcolonial(2)topologically(by the particular approach adopted or focus directed by their proponents): their approaches to translation may be grouped into the philological, linguistic, functionalist, semiotic, cultural, philosophical.重要概念：

1.translation studies:

(1).The paper “the name and nature of translation studies” written by James Holmes in 1988, marks the birth of the discipline of TS.The descriptive branch: product, process, function-oriented The theoretical branch: general & partial which includes medium, area, rank, text type, time, and problem restricted The applied branch: translation aids, training and criticism Note: though being lucid and inspiring in his theory, it shall be noted that description and theorizing are usually inseparable from each other in research.(2).The internal studies and external studies The internal studies: the theoretical branch takes as its objects of study the nature, principles, and procedures of translation;the applied branch includes translation practice(text analysis and genre translation), T criticism, and the training of translators, development of the translation profession.Specifically, translation practice includes text analysis and genre translation, and the former covers such areas of research as: source text analysis, comparison of translations & their source texts, comparison of translations and non-translated texts(comparable texts), translation with commentary;while the genre translation covers texts like drama, poetry, prose fiction, religious text, tourism texts, and multimedia texts.The external translation studies are the derived or borderline parts of TS, covering areas where the internal TS interact or marry with other disciplines, such as history, sociology, cultural anthropology, philosophy, linguistics, psychology, theory of communication, computer science and technology, etc.For example, history of translation;sociology and cultural studies of T;T ethics;terminology management;language and translation technology…

Or historical/cultural translation;translation ethics;terminology and glossaries;translation and technology

The internal studies and the external studies of translation are related and complementary to each other in that the research results in the former provide the latter with both a theoretical basis and a practical focus of concern while the research findings in external studies contribute to the depth and breadth of internal studies by providing new observations and new perspectives.2.definition of translation:

According to Wilss(1995), translation is an action directed toward both the source text and the reader of the target language.Its procedure is determined by its function and it pursues a goal of enabling understanding between individuals of different linguistic and cultural communities.Nida and Taber(1969)regard translation as a communication-based task and define it as: Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.(closest in meaning and style;acceptability;loss of information)--translation as a kind of communication between different language group--translation should communicate information or meaning

3.theory: A theory, in the simplest sense, is just a view or understanding of something that concerns us.In modern science, it is generally understood or refers to a proposed explanation of empirical phenomena, made in a way consistent with scientific method.Theories are collections of hypotheses that are logically linked together into a coherent explanation of some aspect of reality and which have individually or jointly received some empirical support.The properties of a good theory: strong explanatory power that can effectively explain the subject matter it pertains to;strong predicative power which means it should proved a)reasonably adequate predictions about the properties not yet discovered of the specific object under investigation and b)a measure of predictability about the degree of success to be expected from the use of certain principles and procedures in the study of the subject matter.3.equivalence: A term used by many writers to describe the nature and the extent of the relationships which exist between SL and TL texts or smaller linguistic units.The nature of “equivalence” was successively discussed by prominent figures such as Jakobson, Eugene Nida, Peter Newmark, and Werner Koller.(1)Jakobson’s linguistic meaning and equivalence.He followed the relation set out by Saussure between the signifier(the spoken and written signal)and the signified(the concept signified).He stated that the signifier and signified form the linguistic sign, but the sign is arbitrary or unmotivated, thus there is ordinarily no full equivalence between ST and TT.He defined translation as “substituting messages in one language not for separate code-units(signifier)but to entire messages(signified)in some other language”.(2)Catford regarded the central task of translation as “defining the nature and conditions of translation equivalence” and there exists a distinction between textual equivalence and formal correspondence.(3)Nida, inspired by Noam Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar, put forward a three-stage system of translation and used back-transformation to analyze the kernels under some complicated surface structure.In terms of equivalence, he stated that there are

formal equivalence which focuses attention on the message itself in both form and content, the message in the receptor language should match as closely as possible the different elements in the source language.Dynamic equivalence is based on the principle of equivalent effect, where the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptor and the message.There are four basic requirements of a translation.(4)Newmark put forward the notions of communicative translation and semantic translation.Communicative translation attempts to produce on its reader an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original.Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original.4.meaning: According to Nida, meaning is broke down into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning.In terms of traditional studies of meaning, the meanings of meaning are as follows: reference and sense: reference is the relationship between words and the things, actions, events, and qualities they stand for;sense is the place a which a word or phrase holds in the system of relationships with other words or phrases in the vocabulary of a language.From the perspective of sociosemiotics, there are 4 basic facts about meaning: 1)meaning is a kind of relationship.Meaning is not really an entity(because words do not have meanings, people have meanings for words), but the relationship between a sign and something outside it 2)there is a plurality of meaning: three kinds of relationship a sign may enter into –

referential(semantic), pragmatic, syntactic(intralingual);

a.Referential meaning(RM)(sign-real world entity)is chiefly connected with the topic of a communication.Its core elements are the external situation, the facts of the real world.Also known as informative, conceptual, cognitive meaning.But RM does not equal literal meaning(LM).E.g 挂号信；vice-chancellor；indian meal;国际学院；基础实验楼

b.Pragmatic meaning(PM)(sign-user)may be divided into four subsets: identificational meaning(regional, historial background of the speaker);expressive meaning(emotional content of an expression might have in terms of the personality or individual creativity of the user, e.g murder & homicide);associative meaning(connotative meaning隐含意义);social meaning(channel of contact, e.g phatic forms of discourse;forms of address vous/tu;flatter;register);imperative meaning(conative meaning, operative or instrumental meaning)c.intralingual meaning(IM)(sign-sign)is related to the code: phonetic meaning;phonological meaning;graphemic meaning;morphological/lexemic meaning, syntactic meaning, discoursal/textual meaning 3)style is meaning.Style in its linguistic sense is reduced to a group of pragmatic meaning and intralingual meanings.4)different meaning may carry different weight in different contexts.5.code: a system of signs or signals involved in the transmission of messages.Language as a code is a system of multiplicity, i.e.it is composed of diverse elements or has different aspects.6.sign: a thing that signifies or stands for another thing or things.7.signification: using signs to mean.A third item is included in the process of signification, that is, an abstract concept of the thing for which the sign stands.8.message: according to Nida and Taber, it consists of two aspects: meaning and style

9.fusion of horizon: the meeting of different perspectives or backgrounds.So far as translation is concerned, this concept implies that a translator has to emerge from his own intellectual perspective and cultural background in order to assimilate what is foreign in a new light.总结自己学习情况：

Taking the course “Introduction of Translation Studies” is conducive to the improvement of both my theoretical and practical inquiry on translation.It is a pity that we cannot cover all the items outlined in the syllabus such as the skopos theory and the manipulation school, which I find them an enlightening reading as I read them in Jeremy Munday’s “Introducing Translation Studies”.As far as I am concerned, the benefits by taking this course are twofold.First, owning to the systematic exemplifications and illustrations discussed in class, I have a better understanding of the major schools of translation chronologically and topologically.Equipped with the basic knowledge and systematic framework of translation studies, I can conduct my research or my future thesis paper from an in-depth perspective.The philological approach mainly concerning on the “word for word” or “sense for sense” debate, though

案例分析：

1.deep structure analysis The surface structure is the syntactic structure of the sentence which a person speaks, hears, reads or writes.It is the actually observed structure of a sentence.The deep structure is much more abstract and it is considered to incorporate all information relevant to the single or unambiguous interpretation of a particular sentence.Nida believes that the English language possesses seven such basic structures, which he terms “kernels” – the minimal number of structures from which the rest can be most efficiently and relevantly derived.Nida advocated the back-transformation of complex surface structures onto an underlying level, in which the fundamental elements are objects, events, abstracts, and relationals.Four steps for analyzing and transferring complicated SL sentences(1)determine whether each word is an object, and event, an abstract, or a relational(2)identify the kernels,(making explicit the implicit constituent elements of the kernels: who are the recipient and agent?)(3)determine the semantic and logical relationships between kernels(grouping the kernels into related sets)(4)find out the most efficient way of representing the given relationships between kernels in the target language.(state these relationships in a form which will be optimal, i.e.closest to the form in the target language, for transfer into the target language)

例子：the unique and mixed ethnic heritage of the population;the American defence of Bastogne sealed their(Nazi troops)fate;this land, which once barred the way of weary travelers, now has become a land for winter and summer vacation, a land of magic and wonder.2.transliteration 以义出音 vs.translation: a terminological study of the rendition of a sutra text

翻译：

长答题（essay questions；optional）:

1.the philological school, which lays emphasis on the source text, including its production, transmission, and history of interpretation, a typical question raised with this school being that of whether the translator should bring the original to the target reader(liberal translation)or the target language reader to the original(literal translation).Philological tradition in the western history can be illustrated chronologically:

a)roman times – word for word vs.sense for sense.Cicero & Horace & Quintilian: liberal translation;St.Augustine: literal translation b)the middle ages – debate between translation and unacceptable interpretation.St.Jerome, father of the church, translated the Bible into Latin, and developed the Ciceronian distinction between the undesirable “word for word” translation and the desirable “sense for sense”

translation.Translator such as King Alfred in England perceived the task of translating the Bible as linked to the task of elevating the status of the newly developing language known as English, i.e.the Old English.c)the Renaissance – “copying” an original, but also creating a new text with an individual voice.Focus on how to strike a balance in between and how to remain faithful without being subservient.d)Reformation – doctrinal fidelity vs.possible heretical “mistranslation”.Martin Luther elevated and disseminated the usage of German by his translation of the Bible.Etienne Dolet, burn at the stake for his addition to his translation of one of Plato’s dialogues, advocated five principles in translation.e)the 17th & 18th centuries – diversion of the activity of translation: translation as recovery or imitation of classical text;as language learning exercise;as commercial enterprise.John Dryden

reduces all translation to three categories: the triadic model: metaphrase, paraphrase, and imitation.The Port-Royal grammar put forward that “accuracy” in translation could somehow be measured on a qualifiable basis.Alexander Tytler reacted against Dryden’s “paraphrase”(loose translation)and set up three basic and celebrated principles of translation: complete transcript of ideas, style and manner of the same character, and all the ease of the original f)the 19th century – romanticism and “creative translation”, which centered around the problem of whether translation could be considered as a creative or a mechanical enterprise.g)the 20th century – the philological tradition endured

In conclusion, the methodology of this school is introspective, impressionistic, relying heavily on the researchers’ and practitioners’ intuition.Its central concepts are too abstract to be unequivocally understood and too fuzzy to serve as a reliable basis on which detailed theoretical analysis can be conducted and universally accepted conclusion drawn simply because different people may have different views of these concepts.2.the hermeneutic school, which concerns the interpretative process of the ST.The term “hermeneutics” is used in two senses: the part of Christian theology解经学 and theory of understanding and interpretation of the significance of human actions, utterances, products, and institutions 阐释学。Hermeneutics is a Romantic approach to interpretation based not on absolute truth but on the individual’s inner feeling and understanding.Friedrich Schleiermacher, founder of modern Protestant theology and of modern hermeneutics.To “give the reader the same impression that he as a German would receive the work in the original language”, the translator must adopt an “alienating”(as opposed to “naturalizing”)method of translation, orienting himself or herself by the language and content of the ST.While Schleiermacher was instrumental in extending hermeneutics beyond the theological domain, Heidegger was the first related the problem of understanding in general to that of linguistic translation.The interrelationship between hermeneutics and translation may be viewed from two angles: the status of translation in hermeneutics and the inspirations TS derived from hermeneutics.Translation is given by Heidegger a function of challenging thinking that both the original and the translated language are unique in their capacity for harbor philosophical premises or presuppositions.Gadamer develops his philosophical hermeneutics in terms of the concept of “fusion of horizons”, which implies that, in the view of translation, a translator has to emerge from his own intellectual perspective and cultural background in order to assimilate what is foreign in a “new light”.Viewing translation in hermeneutics, meaning must be expressed within the target language “in a new way” and therefore “every translation is at the same time an interpretation”.The status of translator was improved by “translator’s turn” since understanding is achieved through the very involvement of the translator in the convergence of two horizons.In summary, the perspective of hermeneutics is important in TS because it lends inspiring insights into the nature of T and has influenced some subsequent schools of thought on translation like the manipulative and post-structuralist ones and constructivism, but its concern about translation is basically philosophical which does not care about the process of translation.Case study: 圆成十相；土卫六;把汉语规律的解释建立在文化认同的科学基础上；知不知上不知知病

3.the linguistic school, which analyzes, among other things, the SL message and its restructuring in the TL.Principal figures of this school include Catford, Nida and Chomsky.According to Nida, meaning is broke down into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning.He also proposed three techniques to determine the meaning of different linguistic items: hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis.Chomsky’s generative-transformational model analyzes sentences into a series of related levels governed by rules which are phrase-structure rules, transformational rules and phonological and morphemic rules.Three levels of conceptualization: a basic component made up of phrase structure rules and lexicon that generate a deep structure, which in turn is changed through the application of transformational rules into a surface structure.Nida’s and Chomsky’s theories share two common features: Both assume that there exists an underlying, coherent and unified entity behind whatever manifestation language takes: the kernel, which are simple, active, declarative sentences that require the minimum of transformation.They both made philosophical claims about the object of investigation for their respective theories.Nida and Taber put forward a three-stage system of translation: analysis, transfer and restructuring.Kernels are the level at which the message is transferred into the receptor language before being transformed into the surface structure in three stages: literal, minimal and literary transfer.Nida advocated the back-transformation of complex surface structures onto an underlying level, in which the fundamental elements are objects, events, abstracts, and relationals.The linguistic school provides powerful analytical tools for decoding and reencoding the ST and adopts a rigorous approach to problems of linguistic translation.On the other hand, this approach is just one way, rather than the only way, of accounting for the translation process because it smacks of the extralingual elements such as pragmatic and cultural ones.4.the communicative school, which is focused on the communicative functions performed by the original and their translations in the source and target language environments.Inspired by the sociolinguistics and information theory, this school views translation as a process of communication that firstly, the process of translation is inherently similar to that of any other kind of human communication, which means the translator should seek an optimum balance between the cost and benefits of the translation;secondly, target texts need to be drawn out by the inclusion of a certain amount of redundancy so as to overcome the effects of noise and increase the predictability of the communicative content.According to Nida and Taber, this procedure of “drawing out” target texts is essential if dynamic equivalence is to be achieved and “there is a tendency for all good translations to be somewhat longer than the originals.”

They put forward the minimal and maximal requirements for translational adequacy.Minimal: readers are able to comprehend and appreciate how the original readers of the text understood and possible responded to it.Maximal: readers of the translation would respond to the text both emotively and cognitively in a manner essentially similar to the ways in which the original readers responded.5.the sociosemiotic school, which studies various codes involved in communicating meaning.The approach this school takes is a synthetic or eclectic one in that it selects and incorporates what is best of the other major schools.The basic assumption of sociosemiotics is that language must be views as a social as well as linguistic code, a shared set of habits using the voice to communicate, which signifies, elements specific to the speech community in which the code is created and used must also be taken into account and taken care of by the translator.Semiotics is the scientific study of the properties of signing systems or codes, whether natural or artificial and covers the investigation of patterned human communication in all contexts and in all its modes or channels.Four mode of semiotic communications: auditory-vocal;visual;tactile;olfactory and gustatory

Charles Morris, in 1938, defined semiotics as the use of signs governed by syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic rules.The definitions of meaning are different.Translation standard: optimal equivalence.The long-standing dispute about literal translation or liberal translation becomes largely meaningless or deconstructed when we approach the problem of what is to be translated in translation from the point of view of meaning.Optimal equivalence: within the bounds of the norms of target language grammar and usage as well as the receptability of the anticipated readership, with the appropriacy of the translation to the occasion in mind and with priority given to the most prominent or important meaning(s)in the context, the translator employs appropriate translation strategies when necessary to transfer the greatest possible number of meanings of the source message and the distributions of these meanings(i.e.the relative relationships among them)so that the translation is maximally equivalent to the source text and its communicative functions in the target language environment optimally fulfilled.e.g 遇难者的头颅和手臂；一笔双叙syllepsis；文明标兵单位