中美文化差异英文文献

中美文化差异英文文献（5篇）

1.中美文化差异英文文献 篇一

The different between American education and Chinese education With the communication over education between America and China promoting, we begin to think about the difference between American education and Chinese education.After reading a great number of comments about that, I think there are 10 points that should be mentioned.1.American students know they study to achieve themselves while Chinese

students are pushed by their parents and teachers.The former is willing to learn more end benefit from it and the latter is under much pressure.2.The core of the purpose of American education is developing the

children’s creativity since American people believe it is creativity that makes everything goes on.At the same time,we Chinese concentrate on principles from texts.3.A Chinese class will be judged perfect if their students feel know

everything their teacher told but in America this phenomenon is not exist because their goal is to motivate their students to find out new questions and problems.4.In America ,students can interrupt teachers if they cannot catch his class

and ask questions at any time.But in China a student will get punishment if he really does so.American teachers look like friends more.5.Testsin the USA are like tasks since students are allowed to finish it

within one week.As we know ,Chinese student are apparently afraid of tests which are taken place in an intense environment.6.In this point,we are going to talk about the number of students in one

class.A Chinese typical class have more than 50 students while the number of students in American is limited as 30 by law.7.All the world know that Asian students are diligent especially Chinese

students who spend more than 11 hours in school.And American students may be proud of their schedule because of owning more time doing things they like.8.Grades is considered to be a private in school life.They are something

parents care about the most.American students are luckier.Their head teacher won’t plan to show their grades to their parents even their classmate’s parents.But this is what Chinese teachers would like to do.9.Chinese students nearly have the best ability to solve math

problems ,however this is admitted worldwide.Compared to their American peer’s text, Chinese students’ text are thicker and more difficult.10.We also know that Chinese parents are hoping to see their child studying

the most.At the same time ,they would restrict the children’s freedom to do social activities as they have thousands of reasons to say ”NO”.Till now, I have given nearly all aspects I can think about to compare thetwo very different stereotype over education.I swear I write this essay on my own.To be honest,I beg a high mark.Thanks.

2.中美文化差异英文文献 篇二

Previous research indicates that the effectiveness of advertising is highly dependent on cultural variations (Cheng and Schweitzer, 1996;Culter and Rajshekhar, 1992;Monga and John, 2007;Shavitt and Zhang, 2004) .Scholars have studied whether advertisements with appeals adapted to the audience's important cultural values (e.g., individualism for North A-mericans and collectivism for Chinese) tend to be more persuasive and better liked than appeals unadapted to such values (Zhang, 2004) .More recently, Hornikx and O'Keefe (2009) conducted a meta-analytic review of the research and found that adapted ads are somewhat slightly more persuasive and better liked than unadapted ads.

Generally, researchers have paired countries to test for differences in several values portrayed in advertising to determine the most effective methods.Albers-Miller and Gelb (1996) conducted the largest and most widely recognized study of this nature using Hofstede's (1980) four cultural dimensions and Pollay's (1983) list of common advertising appeals.Unfortunately, they did not compare the value systems and perceptions of effective advertising of the Mainland Chinese with those of the United States.As such, smaller marketing firms are forced to develop advertising programs based on data extrapolated from research on Korean and Taiwanese value systems (Emery and Tian 2003) .

China's gross domestic product is reported to be$$1.335 trillion by the middle of 2010, surpassing Japan's GDP of$1.286 trillion, making China the second largest economy in the world (Gustin, 2010) .Accordingly, the Chinese consumer market is the second largest in the world in terms of Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) and is growing at a double-digit pace since 1990s (Sun 2007, Fraser and Raynor 1996) .As early as in 2001 it was predicted that the Peoples Republic of China would be the second largest Internet user and that the Chinese language will be the most used language on the Internet by 2005 (Rodrigues, 2001) .This prediction was witnessed to be true in the end.As of June 2010, the population of China's Internet users climbed to 420 million, 36 million more than at the end of 2009 (Gao, 2010) .The fast growth of the economy, coupled with Chin's enormous population of over 1.4 billion people, has made China attractive for global marketers.It was reported that multinational agencies mostly headquartered in the United States have been seeking markets in China and bringing their offices to China.At the same time along with their increased incomes, the Chinese people have started to demand a wider choice of products and services.Chinese consumers have become more used to employing advertising as their information source to make purchasing decisions, and in addition, more and more companies use advertising as the means to promote their products and services (Chang and Chang, 2005;Gustin, 2010) .

Advertising has become one of China's fastest-growing industries.According to Nielsen Media Research, the United States ranked first in advertising in 2005, and China ranked third, after only the United States and Japan (China Advertising Yearbook, 2006) .At the current annual advertising spending growth rate, China is expected to become one of the world's top five advertising markets within a few years (China Association of Advertising, 2009) .All this equates to tremendous opportunities for international advertising firms to help their present clients expand into China or to assist the Chinese with marketing their products abroad.

This task, however, is particularly daunting for companies trying to do business with China because of the scarcity of empirical research.Cultural differences serve as the hardest barrier to overcome as they have been deeply ingrained in the Chinese citizens over thousands of years.In fact, as some American firms have learned advertising that are effective in other markets may not work at all in the China market;more interestingly, that some advertisements which are effective in certain areas of China may not work in other areas in the same country (Kurlantzick, 2002, Tian, 2000) .Meanwhile the cross-cultural pragmatic failure in English advertisements translated from Chinese has been identified as a significant issue for Chinese marketers to consider when launching advertising campaigns in the Western country markets (Sun, 2007) .

A review of cross-cultural advertising studies published in 18 major periodicals between 1980s and earlier 1990s found that only one study pertained to China and none compared China with the United States (Samiee and Jeong, 1994) .Emery and Tian (2002a, 2002b) updated this study between 1992and 2001 and found three studies pertaining to China and only one that compared China with the United States.Since then although no systematic study has been done on this subject scholars have started to pay attention to it.For instance in her recent new book Brand New China Wang (2008) offers us a unique perspective on the advertising and marketing culture of China, demonstrates the influence of U.S.branding theories and models on advertising in China.The purpose of this study is to partially address this movement by comparing effective advertising appeals between China and the United States.

2 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

2.1 Cultural Values

The first step to successful cross-cultural marketing is to understand cultural differences (Briley and Aaker, 2006;Lillis and Tian, 2010) .The reasoning is that consumers grow up in a particular culture and become accustomed to that culture's value systems, beliefs, and perception processes.Consequently, they respond to advertising messages that are congruent with their culture, rewarding advertisers who understand that culture and tailor ads to reflect its values (Cheng and Schweitzer, 1996;Culter and Javalgi, 1992, Desmarais, 2007) .AlbersMiller's (1996) study of 55 country pairs indicates that similar cultures have similar advertising content and dissimilar societies have dissimilar advertising content.Hofstede's (1980) seminal study regarding the relationship between national culture and work-related values is the most frequently cited benchmark for cross-cultural understanding (Tian, 2000) .Hofstede considered that a country's value system could be depicted along four dimensions:individualism (IDV) , power distance (PDI) , uncertainty avoidance (UAI) , and masculinity (MAS) .

Hofstede explained that the dimension of individualism was the degree to which individual decision-making and actions are encouraged by society.This dimension reflects the way people live together.In a collectivistic society, at the lower end of the individualism-collectivism continuum, individualistic behavior may be seen as selfish.

The power distance dimension indicates the degree to which power differences are accepted and sanctioned by society.In other words, it indicates how different societies have addressed basic human inequalities in social status and prestige, wealth, and sources of power.The societal norm in a country with a high score on the PD dimension is for powerful people to look as powerful as possible.People with power are considered to be right and good.Powerful people are expected to have privileges.In countries with large power distance, the exercise of power gives satisfaction and powerful people try to maintain and increase power differences (Hofstede, 1980) .

The uncertainty avoidance dimension represents the degree to which society is unwilling to accept and cope with uncertainty.People use law, religion, and technology to address uncertainty.This dimension is related to anxiety, need for security, dependence on experts, and the application of information (Hofstede, 1980) .

The masculinity dimension indicates the degree to which traditional male values (assertiveness, performance, ambition, achievement, and materialism) are important to a society.The opposite end of this continuum has been labeled femininity.The societal norm in a country with a high score on the MAS dimension is to try to be the best while valuing achievement, productivity and“machismo”.In these countries, big and fast are considered beautiful (Hofstede, 1980) .

Hofstede's research has been instrumental in furthering an understanding of cross-cultural consumerism and is often used as the basis for selecting between customized and global approaches to marketing (Tian, 2000) .Unfortunately, Hofstede was not able to map the Mainland Chinese culture at the time of his 1980 study.Later Hofstede explained that his 1980 study used the cultural values of IBM employees in offices around the world.At that time China did not have IBM offices and access to comparable employees was denied (Hofstede, 1993) .Fernandez, et al. (1997) , however, updated the original Hofstede study and for the first time included dimensional values for Mainland China.It is important to note, however, that Fernandez, et al.used undergraduate and graduate students in their study.The relationship between China and the U.S.in that study is presented as a standardized score in Table 1.

Note:1990 data excepted from Fernandez, Carlson, Stepina, &Nicholson (1997)

2.2 Advertising Appeals

The second step to successful cross-cultural marketing is to understand a society's sensitivity to advertising appeals.Advertising appeals are the specific approaches advertisers use to communicate how their products will satisfy customer needs by embedding a culture's values, norms, and characteristics (Arens and Bovee, 1994;Hornikx and O'Keefe, 2009) .The appeals are typically carried in the illustration and headlines of the ad and are supported and reinforced by the ad copy.Researchers have argued that cultural values are the core of advertising messages and typical advertisements endorse, glamorize, and inevitably reinforce cultural values (Desmarais, 2007;Pollay and Gallagher, 1990) .

Advertising has been long viewed as a mirror to reflect the values of certain cultures and previous studies have reported that advertising content differs across cultures (Cheng and Schweitzer, 1996;Nelson and Paek, 2005) .Evidence indicates that different cultures seem to emphasize different advertising appeals.For example, Japanese ads have been found to contain more emotional and fewer comparative appeals than A-merican ads (Hong, Muderrisoglu and Zinkhan, 1987) .Advertising in China has been found to contain more utilitarian appeals that focus on state of being and promise a better life (Chan and Cheng, 2002) .

2.3 Combining Cultural Values and Advertising Appeals

Although sparse, research on cross-cultural advertising appeals is generally conducted by pairing countries to test for differences in several values portrayed in advertising to determine the most effective methods (Zinkhan, 1994) .AlbersMiller and Gelb (1996) conducted, perhaps, the largest and most referenced test of cross-cultural advertising appeals using Hofstede's (1980) four cultural dimensions and Pollay's (1983) list of common advertising appeals in eleven countries.Pollay developed a list of 42 common appeals by drawing on previous advertising literature and values research in other disciplines.Albers-Miller and Gelb, however, did not examine China because of the lack of Hofstede dimensional measures.

Albers-Miller and Gelb (1996) used six coders from various countries or regions (i.e., Taiwan, India, France, Mexico, and two from the United States) to relate Pollay's appeals to Hofstede's dimensions.The coders were instructed to relate each appeal to one end of a single cultural dimension or to indicate that the appeal related to none of the dimensions.Appeals retained for their research were ones for which at least four of the six coders indicated the same hypothesized relationship.Twelve of the 42appeals were eliminated because of the lack of agreement about a hypothesized relationship or because the appeal did not relate to any of the dimensions.Additionally, 10 of the remaining 30 appeals failed to support the hypothesized dimensional values at p<.10.The relationships between the dimensions and the 20significant appeals are summarized in Table 2.

Note:Plus and minus symbols indicate convergence or divergence between Pollay's appeals and Hofstede's dimensions.

2.4 Advertising Appeals in the Chinese Context

Advertising as a means of marketing has been widely accepted by Chinese society after Deng Xiaoping launched his reform and open-door policy.Advertising in China has riveted the attention of scholars not only within China but also scholars from the West.In the earlier stage of the market economy oriented reforms, Chinese consumers were suspicious of advertised products, because they perceived that only bad products needed to be advertised.This phenomenon is perhaps a reaction to the fact that early Chinese advertisements often used exaggerated claims, destroying all credibility for their so-called miracle products (Liang and Jacobs, 1994;Zhang, 2004;Sun, 2007) .It has been discovered, however, that Chinese consumers generally indicate foreign advertisements are attractive and trustworthy.This makes Western advertisers have an advantage over their local counterparts, since Chinese consumers have a high regard for products imported from the West (Ha, 1996;Zhang and Shavitt, 2003;Yan, 1994;Wang, 2008) .

Zhang and Neelankavil (1997) conducted an empirical study by investigating the effects of different advertising appeals used across cultures;their findings indicated that cultural differences along the individualism-collectivism dimension affect people's reactions to certain advertising appeals.It was suggested that appeals that emphasize individualistic benefits are more effective in the USA than in China.When appeals emphasizing collectivistic benefits are employed, they are generally more effective in China.However, such effects can be moderated by product characteristics.Different product types may serve to influence the effectiveness of culturally congruent advertising appeals (cf.Zhang and Shavitt, 2003) .In the study done by Zhao and Shen (1995) the findings clearly demonstrate that most of the respondents use mass advertising as their chief source of information about products.

In recent years there has been a growing interest in the Chinese market, in particular the use of social networks in China for business purposes.This type of social network or personal connection has been termed as Guanxi in Chinese.It is suggested that Guanxi can be classified into three categories, namely (1) expressive ties for family members. (2) instrumental ties for strangers, and (3) mixed ties for familiar people.Lee and Dawes limit their study to Guanxi of the mixed-tie type because most business situations fit this type (Lee and Dawes, 2006) .

Because of its relational nature, some have identified Guanxi with a traditional form of relationship marketing.Understanding and managing Guanxi is not only useful in the development of partnerships under the current economic situation in China, but also is necessary for access to the Chinese market in terms of advertising and promotion (Toms and Arias, 1998) .Guanxi is the foundation of Chinese business negotiations;the meaning of Guanxi and using it can also be applied in advertising to differentiate between the characteristics of Chinese and Western negotiations in the marketing context.Guanxi is a characteristic of Chinese culture and provides a starting point for understanding Chinese consumer behaviors.Western cultures have inherently different characteristics.As culture is so important in the marketing process, it is necessary to apply the five dimensions of culture as outlined by Hofstede (1991) and to place these in the Chinese context (Buttery and Leung, 1998) .

3 METHOD

3.1 The Design of the Study

This study uses the 20 advertising appeals employed in the Albers-Miller and Gelb study (1996) that were found to be the most highly correlated with the Hofstede dimensions (coder inter-rater reliabilities>.77 and correlation values above.40 at p<.10) .Using Pollay's list (1983) of appeals and synonyms, the Chinese and American researchers selected several descriptive words from each of the 20 appeal categories that were most likely to have the same meaning within each culture.For example, the terms beautiful and detailed are often used cross-culturally to represent ornamental appeal.In turn, these descriptors were refined by a focus group of five Englishspeaking Chinese students and five U.S.students until there was an agreement on which descriptor would be used to represent a particular appeal.Each descriptor was translated into the Chinese language and dialect of the participating university students and placed on questionnaires administered by the U.S.and Chinese researchers.

All items were measured on a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from (1) “extremely important”to (4) “important”to (7) “not important”.The scale descriptions were translated into Chinese and then back-translated into English by different bilingual translators.Again, scale variances were subsequently resolved by the focus group of students to ensure equivalency between versions.The country scores were calculated by summing the responses for each appeal across the individuals within a given country and then calculating the means of those individuals'scores.The significance of differences between the means of the appeals was determined by a t-test.The probability, however, of finding a significant difference by chance alone increases rapidly with the number of tests.One solution to this multiple testing problem is to make a Bonferroni correction to the probability associated with each test by multiplying it by the number of tests executed (SPSS Applications Guide 2001) .We considered only those values less than p=.002 to be supportive.

The study used undergraduate college students in an attempt to capture the perceptions of new consumers as they begin to integrate their view of appeals with their value system.Although this group did not have years of purchasing experience, it was hoped that their perceptions might be predictive of future trends.Further, students and young adults have an inordinate influence on purchasing in China because of the deference families give to their only children.Lastly, we believed it was important to use of young adults in this study in order to parallel the Fernandez, et al. (1996) reference study.

Data from a randomized (gender, age, socio-economic class, martial and minority status) sample consisting of 300undergraduate college students at three state universities in metropolitan cities in northeastern and northwestern China and300 undergraduate students at two state universities and one private college in the southeastern United States was collected.While neither China nor the United States is a culturally homogeneous society, we believe that our sample groups adequately represent the young, college age population.Lastly, using a selection of ads the students were given 15 minutes of training on advertising appeals.They were also trained on the questionnaire's scale.Ninety-Eight percent of all the questionnaires received had useable data.

3.2 Hypotheses

Directional hypotheses were created for each of the 30 appeals based on the notion that a country's value system (Hofstede dimensions) would be reflected by the importance their citizens placed on the appeals (Table 2) .For example, the Mainland Chinese culture is considered very masculine (Fernandez et al., 1997) .As such, one would expect the Chinese to rate the masculine appeal of effectiveness as very important.Conversely, one would expect that they would rate feminine appeals as not very important.

For the purpose of developing comparative hypotheses, the value systems were considered significantly different, if the cultural dimensions between countries differed by more than 1.64standard deviations (p<.05) .For example, the difference between China and the U.S.on the MAS dimension is 2.78standard deviations or a significance of p<.01.As such, we hypothesize that Chinese consumers would consider appeals associated with masculinity (e.g., effectiveness, convenience, success) tobesignificantlymoreimportantthan U.S.consumers (i.e., C>US) .Additionally, because the Chinese and U.S.differed by 2.48 standard deviations, we posited that U.S.consumers would consider appeals associated with individualism (e.g., independence, distinctiveness, self-respect) to be significantly more important than Chinese consumers (i.e., C

4 RESULTS

The results of the hypothesis testing are summarized in Table 3.A Levene's test indicated that equal variances could be assumed for each of the appeal items.Overall, the findings appear to suggest that the Hofstede dimensions offer only moderate value in predicting the importance of various advertising appeals in China.The results failed to support each of the four hypotheses developed from the masculinity dimension;in fact, one was supported in the opposite direction.Specifically, the appeal of“natural”which was thought to be more important to U.S.consumers was, in fact, more important to Chinese consumers.This non-support of the appeals is particularly noteworthy, since the Chinese culture was the most masculine of all15 countries in the Fernandez et al. (1997) study by more than one standard deviation and significantly (p<.001) more masculine than the U.S.Interestingly, both the U.S.and Chinese consumers rated“effectiveness”as the most important of the 30 appeals.Surprisingly, however, the Chinese consumers gave high rating to the appeals of“innocence”and“natural”, which are generally considered more feminine.

Note:S=support, NS=nonsupport, and S-O=support in the opposite di-rection

Support was relatively strong for the hypotheses suggesting that there would be significant differences in appeals associated with individualism.Four of the five hypotheses were significantly supported at p<.001.Appeals, such as distinctiveness, family and popular were predictably important to U.S.consumers.Similarly, succorance (e.g., expressions of gratitude and pats on the back) which is normally associated with a collective society was predictably high for Chinese consumers (p<.002) .Although the appeal of independence was indicated as much more important by U.S.consumers, it was only significant at p<.014.Additionally, it is interesting to note that the appeal of“family”was significantly supported as an individual appeal and not as a collective appeal.This was the same result as the Albers-Miller and Gelb (1996) study in examination of collective and individualistic societies.The fact that 80 percent of the hypotheses in this dimension were supported is particularly noteworthy, since the U.S.has been considered in past studies (e.g., Fernandez et al., 1996;Hofstede, 1980) as the most individualistic country in the world.

Support was moderate for the proposition that the U.S.and Chinese consumers would react similarly to appeals associated with uncertainty avoidance.Three of the five hypotheses were supported as the two non-supported hypotheses were significantly different at p<.001.Interestingly, the two non-supported appeals indicated that China might be slightly higher in uncertainty avoidance than the United States.The fact that the Chinese students considered the“tame”appeal particularly important and the“adventure”appeal as particular unimportant is a key indicator of a society high in uncertainty avoidance.This seems to be in keeping with most studies of Asian cultures, but is different from the findings presented by Fernandez et al. (1996) .

Support was mixed for the notion that the U.S.and Chinese consumer would view the appeals associated with power distance in a similar manner.Three of the six hypotheses supported this proposition.While the three non-supported appeals are significant at the p<.001 level, they seem to send a mixed message.For example, the U.S.consumer considers the appeals of dear (e.g., expensive) , status and humility to be significantly more important than the Chinese.The first two of these would normally be associated with a high power distance country and the third would be associated with a low power distance country.Further, the Chinese consumers indicated that the appeals of dear and status were less than important (i.e., mean score more than 4) .This is particularly surprising for a country with a non-representative style government and a small middle class.Lastly, an examination of demographical differences (i.e., age, martial status, gender and minority status) within the groups of the Chinese and U.S.indicated that there was no significant difference in their ratings.

5 DISCUSSION

Anthropologist Hall categorizes cultures into high context cultures and low context cultures.According to him the cultural context has certain impacts on the effectiveness of advertising.In“high context”cultures, such as the collectivist Asian cultures of Japan and China, the context in which information is embedded is as important as what is said.In low context cultures, such as the individualistic oriented North American cultures of USA and Canada, the information is contained in the verbal messages;in these cultures, it is important to provide adequate information relating to the product or service in order to satisfy their need for content.Conversely, people in high context cultures are often more effectively reached by image or mood appeals, and rely on personal networks for information and content (Hall, 1976;Lillis and Tian, 2010;Tian, 2002) .

It has been widely accepted that Hofstede's cultural dimensions could be accurately used as predictors of appeal effectiveness;the study by Albers-Miller and Gelb (1996) has reinforced this acceptance by providing an enlarged content and scope.However, the results of this study tend not to fully support the above notion when applying the Hofstede's instrument as well as the improved format of the instrument by AlbersMiller and Gelb from a cross-cultural perspective, particularly within the cultural content of modern Chinese society.There could be several explanations for difference in predictability beyond the validity and translation of the instrument.

First, the eleven countries and region (e.g., Japan, Taiwan, India, South Africa, Israel, France, Finland, Brazil, Chile, Mexico, U.S.) used in the previous study by AlbersMiller and Gelb (1996) have significantly different market economies, political-legal and advertising systems than that in modern China.As such, the significance of individual appeals might vary considerably due to these differences.Second, Hofstede's dimensions although with updated values (1990) might be somewhat too old to be used in predicting the effectiveness of appeals as the business environment in terms of social-economical-cultural-technological structure has experienced tremendous changes all over the world.Third, the appeals may have significantly different values from one age group to the others given changes stated above, and moreover, given the fact that the Albers-Miller and Gelb (1996) study was conducted by using an adult population.Fourth, the product usage visualized by the respondents may have moderated the effect on the importance of appeals.Fifth, cultural dimensions may not be fine grained enough to predict the effectiveness of appeals.In other words, changes in the perceived importance of advertising appeals may take place much more quickly than changes in cultural values;in fact, changes in the importance of advertising appeals may mimic current societal trends and may be precursors to cultural changes.

China as the largest developing country in the world has many special characteristics that differ from the United States, the largest developed country in the world, in terms of social system, economic development level, and cultural values.For example, the higher than predicted values of uncertainty avoidance for the Chinese consumers might be based on the lack of a well established legal system to protect consumers as well as the large amount of poor quality and counterfeit products.Therefore, American marketers should try to use appeals of caution, security and stability and seek endorsements from recognizable and trusted figures.A possible explanation for the appearance of a consumer power distance index lower than the U.S.might be that appeals such as ornamental, dear, status, and lack of humility are avoided because they are symbols of luxury which are widely viewed by normal consumers as appeals to the fubai fenzi (corrupt officials) only.

Although the economy of China has enjoyed a great progress in the last two decades, compared with Americans the great majority of Chinese people still have low incomes.The Chinese official statistics in 2008 indicated that China's annual per capita income was less than 16000 yuan RMB (about$2400 USD) .Households with the highest incomes accounted for 10 percent of the total population, with these annual disposable incomes averaging less than 44000 yuan RMB (about$6500 USD) .American advertisers should stress appeals such as economical, inexpensive, simplicity and humility to draw the Mainland Chinese consumers'attention.Awareness of these differences in terms of business communication is essential to ensure effective advertising.According to Zhao and Shen (1995) , the foreign advertisements that are the biggest hit with Chinese consumers are those for popular products that they can afford to buy, that they use often or plan to buy.The same study shows that there are ways of generating a positive attitude towards an advertisement and a brand image.One is to come up with a creative and entertaining advertisement by using innovative images;another one is to make the advertisement captivating and lively by using dynamic scenes with lots of action.It is interesting that Chinese consumers are very skeptical with regard to advertisement endorsed by celebrities;they believe the testimonials are false as actors are paid to say good sides about the products.

Here again, pitfalls could arise due to differences in color association or perception.For instance, in many tropical countries, green is associated with danger and has negative connotations.Red, on the other hand, is associated with weddings and happiness in China.Moreover, appeals to humor or sex also need to be treated with considerable care as their expression and effectiveness might be simply opposite from what the American advertisers perceive in the Chinese context.The dry A-merican sense of humor does not always translate effectively into Chinese language.

The fact that China scored lower than the United States on uncertainty avoidance represents a cultural reversal and is a particular indicator that China has experience a remarkable transformation from a socialism system (i.e., a low risk taking philosophy) to a market oriented socialist-capitalism system (i.e., a mixed opportunist risk taking philosophy) .This major change in ideology, however, might have been a catalyst of social value changes.The Chinese might be more curious of different ideas and more willing to take risks as their society moves more toward a market economy.On the other hand, the possibility exists that the relative change between the two countries is the result of the U.S.becoming more resistant to uncertainty.The shift made by the United States from being a weak uncertainty avoidance country in Hofstede's study to one of strong uncertainty avoidance seems reasonable in light of the political, economic, and social changes the United States over the past two decades.In particular, the increased uncertainty about the economic power of the United States may be a factor in the change.

Gender should be an important indicator for cultural difference, it is widely accepted that gender identity may have various functions cross-culturally in ways of social activities, including consumption behaviors.However, the result from this study indicates that in terms of masculinity appeal in advertising there seems to be no difference between American respondents and Chinese respondents, a rational possible explanation for the lack of a difference in masculinity between the two groups could be simply because of their age.There is a strong and universal relationship between masculinity and age;as the hormones associated with sexual productivity decrease, there is a corresponding increase in feminine values (Hofstede 1991) .As such, both groups indicated a relatively high importance to those appeals associated with masculinity.Therefore, American marketers may be successful in using the same masculine appeals in the Chinese youth market as they do in the U.S.market.Similarly, age may have had a powerful affect on the differentiation between the U.S.and Chinese students on the dimension of individualism/collectivism.Youth are at a stage in their life cycle where they are trying to be more independent and as such, may reflect more independent appeals.Additionally, the transition of China to a market economy coupled with increasing wealth and purchasing power may suggest more interest in appeals of independence and less on community.

6 CONCLUSIONS

The significance of cross-cultural differences in advertising has become even clearer as we continue to move toward a globalized marketplace.As such, it is important that marketing personnel not let old stereotypes drive their advertising strategies;this is particularly important in the Asian market, as China and Taiwan become formal members of the WTO.Our findings indicate that heuristics such as Hofstede's cultural dimensions may be too broad to capture the detailed differences required in launching an effective advertising campaign.A possible explanation is that cultural values change much more slowly than consumer values and therefore cannot be used to effectively predict consumer behavior.While the continued development of advertising heuristics is important, marketing personnel must continue to use the tried and true method of the focus group.This prevents the mistake of assuming that you know what the consumer thinks is important.In fact, the results of this might be considered as coming from a mini-focus group.

While the findings do not provide unequivocal recommendations for developing advertising, they do provide some general information for marketing practitioners seeking to do business in China.For example, one should consider the seven appeals (i.e., effectiveness, safety, tamed, durable, natural, nurturance and succorance, in descending order of importance) whose means were less than 3 to be very important to selling a product.Conversely, those ten appeals (i.e., casual, distinctiveness, community, status, adventure, dear, family, untamed, magic and popular, in descending order of least important) whose means were more than 4 should be avoided.In any case, the findings strongly suggest the need to consider market segmentation and to consult with an expert in Chinese consumer behavior before developing ads for their market.Lastly, the results suggest the need for future research on factors that may moderate an appeal within a culture (e.g., age, socioeconomic status, significant event) .

Finally, it is necessary to indicate that this study has several limitations.While our study intentionally used college students to get a“heads-up”on future consumer behavior, their perceptions may be significantly different from national perceptions.This is true particularly in the case of Chinese college students who are often the only child in the family and therefore might have limited purchasing experience.In addition the small sample size (numerical and geographic) prevents generalization and the differences in their college environments and socio-economic status may be significantly moderating perceptions.It is recommended that future studies should focus on a large scope in terms of geographic coverage and wrap a more complicated cultural content with a particular attention to the tremendous transformation in business world to a crosscultural perspective.

3.毕业论文 英文文献翻译 篇三

毕业论文文献资料翻译

原文名称: “Goldilocks” Liberalization: The Uneven Path Toward Interest Rate Reform in China

课题名称:利率市场化对我国商业银行的影响分析

学生姓名:号:

指导老师:

所在系部:专业名称:

年月

译文

“金发”自由化：中国利率市场化改革的不平之路

Shih and Victor

中国政府的自由化

2003年，中国从亚洲金融危机进入到一段时间的持续增长后，利率市场化改革似乎终于在掌握之内。就如以前一样，中国人民银行的热衷者发布几篇报告以支持利率市场化，而四大银行的代表也提供放慢改革（成2002年）的理由。此外,中国在2003终于摆脱通货紧缩的威胁并恢复相对高速的增长，只有在2004年有中等程度的通胀（图3）。一些惊喜，在2004年10月29日，对贷款利率的上限被解除，允许银行以他们想要的高利息收费（人民日报2005）。此外，银行也可以给予储户低于存款基准利率的利率。类似总督戴显龙的几年前的时间表，中国人民银行发布了一份报告，奠定了完全利率市场化的具体计划。

尽管推行这种市场化，但金融体系的基本逻辑任然保持了一样。在存款方面，存款利率上下限的去除主要是象征性的，因为银行没有理由去不必要地降低利率，使其低于他们的竞争对手所提供的利率。因此，很少数的银行利用市场化的优势来给出低于存款基准利率的利率（2006年绿色）。关于贷款利率市场化，央行的理由是，它将使银行“根据客户不同风险的状况给予不同的贷款和利率”（2005年中国人民银行货币政策研究小组）。虽然这听起来像一个显著的效率增益，但这是发出了现实的信号，即银行继续提供廉价融资，给予有更低的官僚风险状况的国家资助项目和国有企业。在此期间，通过存款利率上限和贷款利率的下限，银行之间的“毁灭性竞争”仍然受到严格的限制。因此，银行仍然不能通过提供更高的存款利率互相竞争。同样，银行无法通过提供给借款者更低的利率来相互竞争，因为银行能提供的最低利率为基准利率的90％。中国人民银行的一份报告显示，整个国有银行全部贷款的27％，被设臵于法定最低利率，这表明银行将会通过给出法定最低利率来竞争（中国人民银行货币政策的研究团队 2005）。为了给中国人民银行信贷，促使城市商业银行和农村信用社贷款利率的市场化，通过提供更多高利率的贷款给在私营部门的高风险的的借款人，提供融资给原先被冻结的正规银行系统分部（中国人民银行货币政策的研究团队 2005）。

进入2008-2009年的经济衰退，对利率的再次控制促进了大规模的反周期投资驱动器。如图2所示，中国人民银行在全球经济低迷时继续保证银行业稳健的利率传导。移

除贷款利率的上限，银行通过贷款赚更多的钱。因此，当中央要求银行于2008年11月为4万亿人民币经济刺激方案提供融资，银行以极大的热情回应。导致2009年中国的贷款向上急速膨胀，比上年增长了惊人的30％。中国人民银行在2009年原本设臵信贷配额是5万亿人民币向上一点点。到今年年底，银行已经做出了历史上最大量的新增贷款，总额近10万亿人民币（潘克赫斯特,郑,和王 2009）。银行持有的存款利率低于基准利率而贷款利率高于基准利率，实际上可收获可观的利润，即使在经济衰退期间（汉2009）。因此，贷款利率上界的自由化得益于所有有关的政治人物。高层的技术专家保留为最大的反周期投资驱动凑集资金的能力，这在中国的历史上是相对容易的。银行仍然防止“毁灭性竞争”，并继续享有稳健的贷款利率传导。由于银行为经济刺激计划提供资金的意愿，财政部不需要发行很多的债务，从而限制财政赤字的规模。虽然一些大型国有企业由于释放出的贷款利率可能付出更高的借贷成本，银行急于提供大量的融资额给他们，使他们向其他实体转贷资金而赚取利润。随着世界逐步摆脱经济危机，由于前两年的快速信贷扩张，通货膨胀的压力在中国建立的非常迅速。2011年初，通货膨胀调转进入危险的境况。然而中国领导人在危机模式下，利率进一步自由化的任何谈话被搁臵。另一位金发的时刻必须在下一轮利率自由化之前提出，使其可以被理解。

结论

虽然中国并没有回应外部强加给我们的政策改革压力，但是它已经开始自身的重大经济改革。在城市里，许多规模较小的国有企业被私有化或关闭了，而私营部门被允许自由成长（诺顿1996）。大多数商品和服务价格已经被放开（韦德曼2003）。尽管中国经济发生了翻天覆地的变化，但是国家将继续以控制社会的宏观的经济杠杆，允许它通过重要的途径影响经济效果。中央级的技术专家可以通过控制资金的流动和投资方向，确保通胀不上升至无法控制的地步，而增长依然强劲。同时，这些手段也允许他们购买被其他政治局成员保护的利益支持，包括当地官员和国有企业管理人员，特别是在经济停滞的时候。为了保持这些手段的有效性，他们需要储户在中国的国家金融体系的抵押品。如果私人银行出现为存款人提供更高的利率，国有银行必须匹配上更高的利率，从而增加了成本，为大规模的经济刺激计划提供资金。尽管强大的激励促使顶级技术专家保持现状，但是利率市场化改革在中国已经取得了一些进展。即使在20世纪80年代，非正式的银行也提供着很高的存款利率。进入20世纪90年代，央行行长感受到西方关于货币政策以及中国人民银行政治性角色的担忧，开始认真的推行利率市场化。他们在通货膨胀低，经济增长强劲的时候推进自由化改革。

4.劳动力转移英文文献推荐 篇四

1、Todaro, M.P.(1980), “Internal migration in developing countries: a survey”, in: R.A.Easterlin, ed., Population and economic change in developing countries(University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL)

2、Taylor and Martin(2001), “Human Capital: Migration and rural population change”, in: Gardner and Rausser, ed., Handbook of Agricultural Economics, Vol.1(Elsevier)

5.中美文化差异英文文献 篇五

翻译)

A hardy, versatile, fast-growing plant helps to remove arsenic from contaminated soils Contamination of soils with arsenic,which is both toxic and carcinogenic, is widespread1.We have discovered that the fern Pteris vittata(brake fern)is extremely efficient in extracting arsenic from soils and translocating it into its above-ground biomass.This plant —which, to our knowledge, is the first known arsenic hyperaccumulator as well as the first fern found to function as a hyperaccumulator— has many attributes that recommend it for use in the remediation of arsenic-contaminated soils.We found brake fern growing on a site in Central Florida contaminated with chromated copper arsenate(Fig.1a).We analysed the fronds of plants growing at the site for total arsenic by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectroscopy.Of 14 plant species studied, only brake fern contained large amounts of arsenic(As;3,280–4,980 p.p.m.).We collected additional samples of the plant and soil from the contaminated site(18.8–1,603 p.p.m.As)and from an uncontaminated site(0.47–7.56 p.p.m.As).Brake fern extracted arsenic efficiently from these soils into its fronds: plants growing in the contaminated site contained 1,442–7,526 p.p.m.Arsenic and those from the uncontaminated site contained 11.8–64.0 p.p.m.These values are much higher than those typical for plants growing in normal soil, which contain less than 3.6 p.p.m.of arsenic3.As well as being tolerant of soils containing as much as 1,500 p.p.m.arsenic, brake fern can take up large amounts of arsenic into its fronds in a short time(Table 1).Arsenic concentration in fern fronds growing in soil spiked with 1,500 p.p.m.Arsenic increased from 29.4 to 15,861 p.p.m.in two weeks.Furthermore, in the same period, ferns growing in soil containing just 6 p.p.m.arsenic accumulated 755 p.p.m.Of arsenic in their fronds, a 126-fold enrichment.Arsenic concentrations in brake fern roots were less than 303 p.p.m., whereas those in the fronds reached 7,234 p.p.m.Addition of 100 p.p.m.Arsenic significantly stimulated fern growth, resulting in a 40% increase in biomass compared with the control(data not shown).After 20 weeks of growth, the plant was extracted using a solution of 1:1 methanol:water to speciate arsenic with high-performance liquid chromatography–inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry.Almost all arsenic was present as relatively toxic inorganic forms, with little detectable organoarsenic species4.The concentration of As(III)was greater in the fronds(47–80%)than in the roots(8.3%), indicating that As(V)was converted to As(III)during translocation from roots to fronds.As well as removing arsenic from soils containing different concentrations of arsenic(Table 1), brake fern also removed arsenic from soils containing different arsenic species(Fig.1c).Again, up to 93% of the arsenic was concentrated in the fronds.Although both FeAsO4 and AlAsO4 are relatively insoluble in soils1, brake fern hyperaccumulated arsenic derived from these compounds into its fronds(136–315 p.p.m.)at levels 3–6 times greater than soil arsenic.Brake fern is mesophytic and is widely cultivated and naturalized in many areas with a mild climate.In the United States, it grows in the southeast and in southern California5.The fern is versatile and hardy, and prefers sunny(unusual for a fern)and alkaline environments(where arsenic is more available).It has considerable biomass, and is fast growing, easy to propagate,and perennial.We believe this is the first report of significant arsenic hyperaccumulation by an unmanipulated plant.Brake fern has great potential to remediate arsenic-contaminated soils cheaply and could also aid studies of arsenic uptake, translocation, speciation, distribution and detoxification in plants.*Soil and Water Science Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611-0290, USA e-mail: lqma@ufl.edu †Cooperative Extension Service, University of Georgia, Terrell County, PO Box 271, Dawson, Georgia 31742, USA ‡Department of Chemistry & Southeast Environmental Research Center, Florida International University, Miami, Florida 33199，1.Nriagu, J.O.(ed.)Arsenic in the Environment Part 1: Cycling and Characterization(Wiley, New York, 1994).2.Brooks, R.R.(ed.)Plants that Hyperaccumulate Heavy Metals(Cambridge Univ.Press, 1998).3.Kabata-Pendias, A.& Pendias, H.in Trace Elements in Soils and Plants 203–209(CRC, Boca Raton, 1991).4.Koch, I., Wang, L., Ollson, C.A., Cullen, W.R.& Reimer, K.J.Envir.Sci.Technol.34, 22–26(2000).5.Jones, D.L.Encyclopaedia of Ferns(Lothian, Melbourne, 1987).积累砷的蕨类植物

耐寒，多功能，生长快速的植物，有助于从污染土壤去除砷

有毒和致癌的土壤砷污染是非常广泛的。我们已经发现，蕨类植物蜈蚣草（凤尾蕨）对从土壤中提取砷和转运到地上部生物量是非常有效的。据我们所知这种植物，是第一个已知的砷超富集植物以及也是第一种在已发现的蕨类中可以作为超富集植物，它有许多属性比如建议使用在砷污染土壤的修复。

我们发现被铬砷酸铜污染的生长在佛罗里达州中部的一个站点的凤尾蕨图1a）。我们用石墨炉原子吸收法分析了在站点正生长植物叶子总砷的吸收光谱。对于14种研究植物物种中，只有凤尾蕨植物中含有大量的砷（含量；3280–4980 ppm）。我们从受污染的站点（18.8–1603 ppm）和未受污染的站点（0.47–7.56 ppm）收集更多的植物和土壤样品。凤尾蕨从土壤中有效吸收砷转运到其叶子中，在受污染的站点生长的植物，含有1442–7526 ppm的砷和那些未受污染的站点包含11.8–64 ppm的这些值是比那些正常的土壤中生长的植物的高很多，其中包含小于3.6 ppm的砷。

对于含有高达1500 ppm砷的疏松土壤中，凤尾蕨植物可以在很短的时间内吸收大量的砷进入它的叶子（表1）。在掺入1500 ppm砷的土壤中蕨类叶子中砷浓度是不断增长的，在两周内砷含量从29.4增加到15861 ppm。在蕨类叶子中的砷，是126倍的富集。凤尾蕨根的砷浓度小于303 ppm，而那些在叶的浓度达到7234 ppm。

加入100 ppm的砷显著刺激蕨类生长，导致在与对照相比，生物量增加了（数据未显示）。

经过20周的增长，用1:1甲醇：水的方法提取该植物用高效液相色谱法–电感耦合等离子体质谱法来平衡砷。目前几乎所有的砷是相对无毒的无机形式，几乎没有检测到有机砷物种。作为（Ⅲ）的浓度叶（47-80％）与根（8.3％）相比更多，表示AS（V）被转换AS(III）在根转运到叶的过程中。

以及从土壤中除去砷的植物含有不同浓度的砷（表1），从土壤中去除含砷的凤尾蕨也含有不同形态的砷（图1C）。再着，高达93%的砷主要集中在叶。虽然feaso4和AlAsO42H2O在土壤中的相对不溶，凤尾蕨富集的砷来自这些化合物进入它的叶状体（136–315 ppm）在3级–6倍大于土壤砷。凤尾蕨是裸子植物，并广泛栽培归功于许多地区气候温和。在美国，它生长在东南部和加利福尼亚南部。蕨类植物是有多种有优点，耐寒，喜欢阳光（不寻常的蕨类植物）和碱性环境（如砷是更有效）。它具有相当大的生物量，而且常年生长迅速，易于繁殖。

我们相信这是用一个未经处理的显著砷超富集植物为例的第一次报告。凤尾蕨在修复砷污染土壤方面的潜力很大，也可以帮助研究砷的吸收，转运，形态研究，在植物中的分布及排毒。

*土壤和水科学系，大学

佛罗里达州，盖恩斯维尔，佛罗里达州32611-0290，美国 电子邮件：lqma@ufl.edu †合作推广服务，大学

格鲁吉亚，特勒尔县，邮政信箱271，道森，佐治亚州31742，美国 ‡化学与东南部

环境研究中心，佛罗里达州

国际大学，迈阿密，佛罗里达州，33199，1。Nriagu，J.O.（主编）环境中的砷1部分：循环 与特性（威利，纽约，1994）。

2。布鲁克斯，R.R.（主编），重金属超富集植物（剑桥大学出版社，1998）。

3。kabata pendias，A.pendias，在土壤中的微量元素 植物203–209（CRC，博卡拉顿，1991）。

4。科赫，I.，王，L.，ollson，C.A.，卡伦，W.R.& Reimer，K.J.环境。SCI。技术。34，22，26（2000）–。

5。琼斯，D.L.百科全书的蕨类植物（洛锡安区，墨尔本，1987）。

感想：首先来了解一下砷，砷俗称砒，为银灰色晶体，具有金属性，毒性很小，但其化合物都有毒性。砷中毒主要由砷化合物引起，三价砷化合物的毒性较五价砷为强，其中以毒性较大的三氧化二砷（俗称砒霜）中毒为多见。砷化物还可经皮肤或创面吸收而中毒。长期接触砷化物可引起慢性中毒。熔烧含砷矿石、制造合金、玻璃、陶瓷、印染、含砷医药和农药的生产工人和长期服用含砷药物均可引起砷中毒，饮水中含砷过高，可引起地方性砷中毒。

从这篇文章中我了解到了蕨类植物蜈蚣草（凤尾蕨）是第一个已知的砷超富集蕨类植物，可以在在砷污染土壤修复方面有所应用。通过石墨炉原子吸收法这种方法来分析植物叶子总砷的吸收光谱，在分析过程中用1:1甲醇：水的方法提取该植物用高效液相色谱法–电感耦合等离子体质谱法来平衡砷，而且了解到目前几乎所有的砷是相对无毒的无机形式，几乎没有检测到有机砷物种。

那么即然这样，可不可以用此类蕨来定期富集土壤中的砷然后除去，来达到治理砷的土地污染的问题呢？有这个想法，我们要明确几个问题：

1、凤尾蕨是否容易生长？

2、凤尾蕨在什么样的情况下生长旺盛？

3、是否有明确的昆虫或动物以此为食？

4、在植物类中有没有天地？

5、在新环境中是否会出现不受控制的情况？

6、如果容易成活，怎么样大批量的生产？

7、在凤尾蕨富集砷的过程中，有没有特殊的培养条件？

8、富集完成后，凤尾蕨怎么样处理？等等问题，都需要我们来明确的解答。

在实验的基础上如果成功（可以来治理土地砷污染），还需要在具体的环境中进行测试。