毕业设计外文翻译材料(6篇)
1.毕业设计外文翻译材料 篇一
外文翻译:
安全评估和风险管理方法建设
张军,张明元,袁勇波,周静
(中国土木与水利工程大学,大连理工,大连116085)
摘要: 改进后的LEC法是用于处理与期货大厦项目的安全评估的。经修订的评估项目L的危险方法隐藏的工作条件,存在由实验结果确定了不同价值体系之间的能源和人工能源,表明该方法的科学性和实用性,并能提高安全成本的经济效率。
关键词:建设危害,安全评价,安全管理
1建筑的危害和安全评估
建筑存在的危险性都和周围的建设用地有关系。这些条件不合理造成的勘查施工前和施工期间的经济活动不合理并会转移到危险性上。首先,它是认识到科学和危害之后而确定安全管理的必要,进行任何监测都有可能发生意外。
评估的目的是寻找出安全分析和预测危险的方法,而且其结果与现有工程或一个系统,都需要合理并可行。因此我们提出了从监督监测和抵御风险中得到的情况,以求意外事故有最低发生率,这是不同的方法之间的安全评估和正常的安全管理和监控。这样做的安全评估、分析、论证和可能的损失建筑工程有关的伤害和影响范围都最小。
安全文化是伴随人类的生产活动而产生的。但是,人类有意识地发展安全文化,还是近1 0余年的事,国际原子能机构在对1 9 8 6年发生的切尔诺贝利核泄漏事故调查分析的基础上,于1 9 9 1年编写的“7 5一工N 8 A G-4 "评。报告首次提出了“安全文化”的概念,并建立了一套核安全文化建设的思想和策略。
安全文化从核安全文化、航空航天安全文化等企业安全文化,拓宽到全民安全文化,由此发展到了由安全观念文化、安全行为文化、安全物质文化组成的全民安全文化的新时代。在该阶段,安全教育体系正在形成,儿童和,},小学生的安全教育已经起步。大学和成人的专业化安全教育已初具规模,在有关政府机
构领导下的安全文化普及教育正蓬勃发展;安全科学作为独立的学科体系已经建立,安全科学形成了由安全科学技术基础学科、安全学、安全工程等构成的多学科体系;安全管理机构进一步健全,建立健全了一大批国际的、国家的、行业的、社会的、企业的安全管理机构;在法规、标准、安全制度方而,体现在而向全民的安全建设开始起步,而向行业的、企业的安全法规、标准、制度、操作规程等具有更强的针对性,在安全宣传方而,一个社会化的安全宣传网正在形成,出现了一些而向大众、宣传安全光荣、安全就是效益的作品,“安全第一,顶防为主”的安全哲学思想更加深入人心。
“安全文化是人类文化的部分,它涉及人类活动的各个领域,存在于社会生活的各个方而;它涉及自然科学和社会科学的诸学科,它为安全的世界观和方法论的形成提供乳育的胚胎,它既具有历史的继承性,又具有鲜明的时代感”。安全文化是灿烂的,华民族文化的组成部分,华民族在生存和繁衍,},与世界其他民族一起创造并传播了安全文化。安全文化在我国的发展也经历了人类对安分与健康的台目追求、核安全文化出现、全民安全文化的兴起等二个阶段。2危险方法评估工作
考虑到人的危险在工作条件,格雷厄姆和吉尔伯特。楼金尼建议的频率和严重程度,以该评估环境和一些揭露应指环境变量作为独立设置的函数公式。根据他们的实际经验,根据不同情况独立变量的值,给出了三被标记的对象,然后在危害水平也分为公式后的危险值来计算。这种方法容易识别。
D=LEC
其中,D指该商标,L是指事故的发生概率,E和C是指人类正暴露的频率和在环境意味着损失。
3管理建设的危害
建造业是高风险行业,需要管理并改善其意外总数的发生。政府提出安全建设模式位“统一的模式,法律监督机构负责企业所有安全监管,部分群众以及整个社会参与监督”。作者假设如下:
(1)加强安全监察,建设,以确保施工安全的措施费组成竞争费和特殊项目费用;建设行政主管部门应加强项目前的审计。
(2)加强并完善组织建设施工安全监管,成立一个监管组织,其的特点是依法执行监管任务。
(3)编制依据不同专业的职业经理人的安全的安全生产监管部根据建筑由大小的地盘遵守《组织对构建企业安全生产和职业经理人准备》。
(4)发展项目和危害安全风险评估,登记项目,消除构建社会安全危害的可能影响。
(5)建立和落实,检查系统的支架固定和拆卸起重机械,成型板,建立和落实制度,消除危害的技术,设备和材料,建立和实施项目系统研究项目的施工安全。
(6)监测信息系统的致命危害工地使用是高级电力监控。
(7)开展风险规避。风险规避是一个有用的和共同的风险管理策略。当认识到严重后果的隐患和风险因素,但没有可用的措施之前,建设,施工计划可能改变或放弃为避免风险。
(8)建筑企业要建立和完善安全体系建设的长期性,管理和设备应达到 降低风险损失之和(参考标准:标准JGJ59 一 1999年)。
(9)发挥媒体的咨询作用,进行系统的安全性评估、设计、安全监测、认证和考试,以及意外伤害保险赔偿。
(10)建立工会公关,处理紧急项目。
4结论
本文主要内容是考察了管理层在判断建筑危害中应用的安全性评估方法。以及建设项目危险评价工作的执行情况,我们已确保了致命的危险事故发生率为最低。根据经验,可纳入危险管理系统的危险值为:低于160时的危险,否则,它会被认为是不可承受的危险事故。应该充分应用现代化的信息技术来建立和完善
一道预防和控制系统来检测意外事故。以期待应用技术来预防更多的意外事故发生。
2.毕业设计外文翻译材料 篇二
一、要求
1、与毕业论文分开单独成文。
2、两篇文献。
二、基本格式
1、文献应以英、美等国家公开发表的文献为主(Journals from English speaking countries)。
2、毕业论文翻译是相对独立的,其中应该包括题目、作者(可以不翻译)、译文的出处(杂志的名称)(5号宋体、写在文稿左上角)、关键词、摘要、前言、正文、总结等几个部分。
3、文献翻译的字体、字号、序号等应与毕业论文格式要求完全一致。
4、文中所有的图表、致谢及参考文献均可以略去,但在文献翻译的末页标注:图表、致谢及参考文献已略去(见原文)。(空一行,字体同正文)
5、原文中出现的专用名词及人名、地名、参考文献可不翻译,并同原文一样在正文中标明出处。
二、毕业论文(设计)外文翻译
(一)毕业论文(设计)外文翻译的内容要求
外文翻译内容必须与所选课题相关,外文原文不少于6000个印刷符号。译文末尾要用外文注明外文原文出处。
原文出处:期刊类文献书写方法:[序号]作者(不超过3人,多者用等或et al表示).题(篇)名[J].刊名(版本),出版年,卷次(期次):起止页次.原文出处:图书类文献书写方法:[序号]作者.书名[M].版本.出版地:出版者,出版年.起止页次.原文出处:论文集类文献书写方法:[序号]作者.篇名[A].编著者.论文集名
[C].出版地:出版者,出版年.起止页次。
要求有外文原文复印件。
(二)毕业论文(设计)外文翻译的撰写与装订的格式规范
第一部分:封面
1.封面格式:见“毕业论文(设计)外文翻译封面”。普通A4纸打印即可。第二部分:外文翻译主题
1.标题
一级标题,三号字,宋体,顶格,加粗
二级标题,四号字,宋体,顶格,加粗
三级标题,小四号字,宋体,顶格,加粗
2.正文
小四号字,宋体。
第三部分:版面要求
论文开本大小:210mm×297mm(A4纸)
版芯要求:左边距:25mm,右边距:25mm,上边距:30mm,下边距:25mm,页眉边距:23mm,页脚边
距:18mm
字符间距:标准
行距:1.25倍
页眉页角:页眉的奇数页书写—浙江师范大学学士学位论文外文翻译。页眉的偶数页书写—外文翻译
题目。在每页底部居中加页码。(宋体、五号、居中)
3.毕业设计相关外文材料 篇三
to the Control of Greenhouse Gas Emissions
ABSTRACT One of the environmental effects of hydropower operation that should be evaluated in licensing decisions is the general benefit to air quality.Hydropower’s contribution to the reduction of greenhouse gas(GHG)emissions is an increasingly important component of these air quality benefits.The Oak Ridge Competitive Electricity Dispatch(ORCED)computer model is one method that can be used to quantify these benefits.ORCED provides a relatively simple method that is applicable and cost-effective and that has been successfully applied in other GHG studies.ORCED can be used to calculate a region-specific value of the carbon intensity factor(CIF, kg carbon/MWh)that would be associated with likely replacement power(i.e., a regionally representative mix of coal, gas, and other energy sources).The project’s plant factor and operational mode(e.g, baseload versus peaking)can also be incorporated in the CIF calculation.The resulting parameter can then be multiplied by the energy output of the hydropower project that is being analyzed to estimate a CO2 emission value that is avoided by the project’s operation.Valuing Energy Production Hydropower’s contribution to GHG emission control is related to avoided emissions(i.e.emissions that would occur if hydroelectricity had to be replaced by another fossil-fueled energy source).The estimation of an appropriate value for avoided emissions is complicated, because there is not a single equation to calculate the emissions that are not produced at hydropower projects.The characteristics of avoided emissions depend on the type of power that is displaced by hydropower generation.If a kilowatt-hour were not generated at the hydro plant, what plant would have generated it? The answer depends on a range of factors: the time of day, the plants already on the system, the plants available, their variable costs, the type of fuel they use, their efficiencies, even the transmission losses and constraints.These factors are regionally and seasonally variable.GHG Measurement Units A common unit for measuring GHG is metric tons of carbon.Although carbon is largely emitted as carbon dioxide gas(CO2)when it is burned, small percentages are also emitted as carbon monoxide(CO)and methane(CH4), which eventually convert to CO2 in the atmosphere.Other GHGs are ozone(O3)and nitrous oxide(N2O).The atmospheric warming effect of GHGs other than CO2 can be represented relative to the effect of CO2.The exact relationship between the gases is complicated by factors such as the wavelength of radiation absorbed, decomposition of gases in the atmosphere, and other atmospheric chemical reactions that can increase or decrease greenhouse gas effects.The warming value will change over time as the other gases are converted to CO2 or otherwise removed from the atmosphere.In general, CH4 is 56 times more potent than CO2 over a twenty year period, but over 100 years this difference drops to 21 times, and over 500 years it drops to 7 times the effect of CO2(EIA 1999b).Nitrogen oxide(NOx)is not a greenhouse gas on its own, but it can combine with CO to promote the formation of ozone.However, the greenhouse impact of power plant NOx emissions compared to CO2 emissions is several orders of magnitude less.Estimation Methods Different levels of modeling complexity can be used in estimating GHG benefits.The simplest approach is to make an a priori assumption of the type of power that would replace hydropower production and then use a representative carbon intensity factor to calculate the relevant carbon emissions.Average carbon intensity factors range from 266kg C/MWh for a coal-fired steam electric plant to 90 kg C/MWh for an advanced gas combined cycle plant(EIA 1999a and 1999b).For example, if the loss of a hydro facility would be replaced by increased coal-fired production at 33 percent efficiency then carbon emissions would increase 266 kg per MWh.If the facility had a capacity of five MW and a plant factor of 50%, replacement with coal-fired production would generate about 5,800 tons of carbon per year.This is equivalent to 4,500 vehicles.Conclusions The production of hydroelectricity is associated with significant reductions in the nation’s GHG emissions, although the specific amount of this benefit is difficult to measure directly.ORCED provides a relatively simple method to estimate the GHG benefits of hydropower.If more precise answers are required, then other large-load flow or capacity expansion models may need to be used.However, for most cases ORCED provides a mechanism to get results without the high cost or long time of these large models.ORCED can be used to calculate a region-specific value of the carbon intensity factor that would be associated with likely replacement power, and that factor can be adjusted to account for the hydropower projects plant factor.The resulting carbon intensity factor can then be multiplied by the energy output of the hydropower project that is being analyzed to produce a CO2 savings that is associated with the project’s operation.This GHG emission can then be converted to an equivalent value the number of cars needed to produce the same emission or to some other common measure, to put this savings in a more easily understood measure.This analytical approach can be adapted to evaluating alternative plant operations, such as shifts from peaking to baseload.The model also generates the marginal cost of power for a given region, allowing the user to determine the economic impact of the generation.估算水电的贡献的控制温室气体排放
摘要
水电的操作应在许可决定的环境影响评价的一般利益之一,是空气质量。水电的贡献,是温室气体(GHG)的排放量减少是这些空气质量效益越来越重要的组成部分。Oak Ridge竞争性电力调度(ORCED)计算机模型是一种方法,可以用来量化这些利益。ORCED提供了一个相对简单的方法是可行和符合成本效益,并且已成功地应用在其他温室气体的研究。ORCED可以用来计算一个地区的碳强度因子的特定值(CIF,公斤碳/兆瓦时),将与可能的替换电源(即煤、气区域代表性的组合,和其他能源的来源)有关。该项目的植物因子和运作模式(如基荷与峰值)也可纳入到CIF计算。由此产生的参数,然后可以乘上水电项目正在分析估计二氧化碳排放值,是由该项目的运作避免能量的输出。
重视能源生产
水电的贡献,与控制温室气体排放有关,避免排放量(即排放量会发生变化,如果水电必须由另一个化石燃料能源替代)。为避免排放量估计一个适当的值是复杂的,因为没有一个公式来计算未在水电项目产生的排放量。对避免的排放量的特性取决于对能源的类型,是由水电发电流失。如果一千瓦小时未在水力发电厂产生的,哪种植物会产生呢?答案取决于一系列因素:一天的时间,植物已在系统中,提供的生产基地,他们使用的燃料类型,它们的效率,甚至是传输损耗和可变成本的限制。这些因素是区域和季节的变量。
温室气体计量单位
用于测量温室气体常用的单位是公吨碳。虽然主要的碳排放是二氧化碳气体(CO2),当它燃烧,而一氧化碳(CO)和甲烷(CH4)占很小的比例,最终转化为二氧化碳排放在大气中和其他温室气体的臭氧(O3)和氧化亚氮(N2O)。其他的温室气体等使大气变暖的影响可以表示相对于二氧化碳的效果。气体之间的确切关系有复杂的因素,如吸收波长的辐射,大气中的气体分解,和其他气体的化学反应,可以增加或减少温室气体的影响。气候变暖的价值将随时间而改变为其他气体,转化为二氧化碳或以其他方式存在于大气中。一般情况下,甲烷是56倍以上,过去20年间二氧化碳更主要,但这种差异在100年下降到21倍,超过500年就降到了7倍的二氧化碳的影响(环境影响评估1999b)。氮氧化物(NOx)的温室气体是不针对自己的,但它可以与CO结合,促进臭氧的形成。然而,与电厂氮氧化物排放量相比,二氧化碳温室气体排放的影响是少几个数量级
估计方法
由于建模的复杂程度不同,可用作估算温室气体排放的好处。最简单的方法是使一个假想的电源类型,以取代水电生产,然后使用具有代表性的碳强度因子计算碳排放有关的假设。平均碳强度因子范围从266公斤的C /兆瓦的燃煤蒸汽电热设备厂到90公斤先进的燃气联合循环电厂的C /兆瓦时(环评1999a和1999b)。例如,如果一个水电设施损失将通过增加燃煤改为生产效率33%的碳排放量将增加到每兆瓦时266公斤。如果工厂有五兆瓦和50%植物因子,与燃煤生产替代将会每年产生约5,800吨二氧化碳。这相当于4500辆的排放量。
结论
4.毕业设计外文翻译材料 篇四
撰写要求与格式规范
(2008年7月修订)
一、毕业论文(设计)文献综述
(一)毕业论文(设计)文献综述的内容要求
1.封面:由学校统一设计,普通A4纸打印即可。
2.正文
综述正文部分需要阐述所选课题在相应学科领域中的发展进程和研究方向,特别是近年来的发展趋势和最新成果。通过与中外研究成果的比较和评论,说明自己的选题是符合当前的研究方向并有所进展,或采用了当前的最新技术并有所改进,目的是使读者进一步了解本课题的意义。文中的用语、图纸、表格、插图应规范、准确,量和单位的使用必须符合国家标准规定,不得使用已废弃的单位,如:高斯(G和Gg)、亩、克、分子浓度(M)、当量能度(N)等。量和单位用法定符号表示。引用他人资料要有标注。文献综述字数在3000字以上。
正文前须附300字左右中文摘要,末尾须附参考文献。
列出的参考文献限于作者直接阅读过的、最主要的且一般要求发表在正式出版物上的文献。参考文献的著录按在文章中出现的先后顺序编号。
期刊类文献书写方法:[序号]作者(不超过3人,多者用等或etal表示).题(篇)名[J].刊名,出版年,卷次(期次):起止页次.图书类文献书写方法:[序号]作者.书名[M].版本.出版地:出版者,出版年:起止页次.论文集类文献书写方法:[序号]作者.篇名[C].论文集名.出版地:出版者,出版年:起止页次.学位论文类书写方法:[序号]作者.篇名[D].出版地:单位名称,年份.电子文献类书写方法:[序号]主要责任者.题名:其他题名信息[文献类型标志/文献载体标志 ]出版地:出版者,出版年(更新或修改日期)[引用日期].获取和访问途径.参考文献应在10篇以上。
(二)毕业论文(设计)文献综述撰写与装订的格式规范
第一部分:封面
1.封面:由学校统一设计。
第二部分:文献综述主题
1.中文摘要与关键词
摘要标题(五号,宋体,顶格,加粗)
摘要内容(五号,宋体)
关键词标题(五号,宋体,顶格,加粗)
关健词内容(五号,宋体,词间用分号隔开)
2.正文标题
标题最多分四级。
一级标题,三号字,宋体,居中,加粗;
二级标题,四号字,宋体,顶格,加粗;
三级标题,小四号字,宋体,顶格,加粗;
3.正文
小四号字,宋体。
4.引文注释
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《学科前沿文献读写议》课程作业
学生姓名: 沈焱强 学
号: 201001013335 专
业: 工商管理 班
级: 工本103班
浙江树人大学管理学院
毕业论文题目:浙江农村养老保险调查分析 外文文献翻译
重新引入代际均衡:波兰养老保险制度
马立克:GóRA 威廉戴维森学院工作论文574号 2003年6月
摘要:波兰于1999年通过了新的养老金制度。这种新的养老保险制度允许波兰,以减少退休金支出(占GDP的百分比),而不是增加它-正如预计的经合组织其他大多数国家。本文介绍了概念背景的新系统的设计。新系统的长期目的是确保人口代际平衡,不论情况。这需要稳定的国内生产总值的份额分配给整个退休一代。传统的养老金制度的目的,相反,在稳定的份额人均国内生产总值退休人员。在人口结构的变化观察到,在过去的一夫妻几十年,这历史性的尝试,以稳定为首占GDP的比重为退休人员严重的财政问题和经济增长负外部性,如观察许多国家。许多国家曾试图改革其养老金制度不同的方法来尝试解决这些不断增加的费用问题。虽然波兰改革采用了其他地方应用技术,它的设计不同于典型的做法和教训,结果是有希望的所有经合组织国家。本文介绍了这一理论和实际应用另一种方法,因此,新的波兰养老保险制度主要特点设计。
导言
人口结构的转型与政策过于短视一起造成了严重的问题在全世界许多国家地区的养老金。传统的要素养老金制度的设计包括对捐款的薄弱环节和利益缺乏超过该系统的成本控制。这些因素列入养老保险制度导致爆炸的设计成本,造成了负增长的外部因素和导致失业率持续高企。因此,养老金改革的追求现已在世界各地,特别是在欧洲的政策议程的顶部。然而,很少有国家能够在引进根本性的改革面积到了这个时候养老金。在这种情况下,改革的定义是至关重要的。对于本文的目的,“改革”是指改变系统,以消除而不是仅仅在边缘玩的贡献率时下绝大多数平均拥有多年的生活留下来住。因此,上面的讨论表明,养老保险制度的目标已经改变了养老退休金系统(OA)的一部分。然而,非养老社会保障制度(NOA),如残疾,保持风险有关,不论老化。这将导致社会保障体系的各部分的结论是,应采用分段,如收入(贡献)和费用(利益)可以连接到他们的目的完全随着时间的推移,各分部相互绝缘。
在这种方式中,决策者将能够看到各分部的社会保障体系,知道系统其他部分的风险,其收入和支出都被绝缘的当前状态,准确地反映了该分部的和共同的系统作为一个整体。社会保障体系,然后将一个OA段(养老金)和各的NOA段(残疾,生育,工人的补偿等等)。这种业务和会计改革是最重要的一个深养老保
险制度改革的非财政的原因之一,并为决策者提供一个功能强大的工具来了解如何以及他们的社会保障体系,将满足其目标。养老金:所提出的方法的总结
典型的养老金经济学,以及流行的讨论,使用下面的对立概念为思考中心基础养老金:
现付与资金;
公共与私人的;
多方面与多支柱。
本文提出了一种替代方法。这种替代方法,可以在以下四对对立的概念,总结了: 通用(强制覆盖整个人口)和部分(一组人自愿参与);
个性化(个人账户)与匿名(不)参与;
具体的任务/分段(OA与NOA)与多任务(OA和NOA混合在一个方案)社会保障组织;
金融(通过金融市场回报率)与非财务(通过真正的经济增长产生的回报率)。
有效的养老保险制度的一种方式,使内源性的设计,这意味着它会自动调整不干预外。系统只需要一个决定,即贡献率的初步选择。
基于比较的上面设置养老金的思维方式可以更好地描述和分析了养老保险制度是有用的。这种方法也可以让养老金讨论超越那些促进民办养老基金和那些促进所谓的现收现付制无望的争议。
在欧盟等和其它地方的政策制定者可以使用所提出的方法的时候,看着他们的养老金制度改革。
波兰新的养老保险制度的主要特点
波兰新养老保险制度的设计是一个很好的例子应用上述,介绍了在实践中的思维方式。命名为“安全系统通过多样性“1999年1月开始。它完全取代了以前的条例退休金的工作人口的大多数。设计新系统从从无到有提供了独特的机会,以避免复杂的系统。相反,新系统的设计是简单和透明。主要目标是设计一个系统可以是中性的,或者至少关闭经济增长无论对中立人口老龄化。新系统的设计不复制任何其他现有的养老保险制度在其他地方。很强的相似性,可以发现,只有到新的瑞典养老保险制度根据类似的原则,并开始在同一时间对同一,在这一总体框架波兰新系统采用了数字技术的概念在其他国家发展。这种新波兰养老保险制度的简要介绍对一般的系统经济性设计的重点,同时搁置最技术细节。下面的子弹协助抓的波兰新概念的本质系统设计。重点是普遍的养老保险制度的一部分;
分离,社会保障的养老从非养老部分的一部分社会保障和分割的收入流; 终止了以前的系统办公自动化的一部分; 创建一个新的办公自动化系统完全养老金个人账户的基础上; 权责发生制在办公自动化系统; 分裂两个帐户(第一帐户中的每个人的办公自动化捐款北区区议会,第二个帐户);
最小的两个补充养老年金顶部,如果他们的总和低于一定水平(资金,国家预算中)。
特别是有没有这样的元素作为一个“国家基本养老金”的制度。社会再分配的存在,但它被移动从退休金制度。养老保险制度的唯一的作用是提供一个有效的方法,对收入分配工作的一代人生命周期。对于整个社会保障体系的贡献率并没有改变。不过工人的工资是“票房注册”,以便向他们介绍他们的想法,付出的贡献的一部分,并建造了总成本的意识养老保险制度。因此,自1999年1月工人和雇主分担没有任何费用的捐款在捐款总额的大小真正的变化。该整个操作影响的百分比,但不是真正的金钱流动。因此新的系统是基于以前的系统相同的贡献流入。
结束语
为人们提供与社会保障-包括消费融资的退休一代一代的产品进行的工作-是非常高的名单在大多数国家的社会优先事项。这是社会的重要,特别是在欧洲。然而,传统的养老金制度的低效率在实现这一目标的提出风险。社会和民众主义言论向公众表明,改变内养老保险制度是危险的社会目标。在现实中,大多数国家在世界上,它是刚好相反。时间越长,传统的养老金制度是举起,在更多的社会造成的破坏性影响将被创建。波兰属于一个国家的非组,为众多的人准备我们的时间,即人口老龄化最严峻的挑战。新养老保险制度不仅将停止对养老保险制度的成本增加,但会也让他们减少。这将使更多的资源用于发展,这反过来也将有助于更强劲的增长,加双方的工作生活和退休一代的标准。波兰新的养老金制度的例子,以及瑞典之一,有趣的另一个原因。这种类型的系统有利于劳动力的流动,这是特别需要在欧洲。免费的劳工运动,就不可能实现如果从一国转移到另一个影响到退休后的收入预期。因此,在养老保险制度的中立性目标将有越来越多的欧洲重要整合。
外文文献原文
Reintroducing Intergenerational Equilibrium: Key Concepts behind the New Polish Pension System
By: Marek Góra William Davidson Institute Working Paper Number 574
June 2003
Abstract Poland adopted a new pension system in 1999.This new pension system allowsPoland to reduce pension expenditure(as a percent of GDP), instead of increasing itas is projected for the majority of other OECD countries.This paper presents theconceptual background of the new system design.The new system’s long-termbjective is to ensure intergenerational equilibrium irrespective of the demographicsituation.This requires stabilisation of the share of GDP allocated to the entire retiredgeneration.Traditional pension systems aim, instead, at stabilisation of the share ofGDP per retiree.The change in demographic structure observed over the past for acouple of decades and this historic attempt to stabilise the share of GDP per retiree ledto severe fiscal problems and negative externalities for growth, as observed innumerous countries.Many countries have tried to reform their pension systems indifferent ways to try to resolve the issue of these ever-increasing costs.Although thePolish reform uses a number of techniques applied elsewhere, its design differs fromthe typical approaches – and the lessons and results are promising for all OECDcountries.This paper presents the theoretical and practical application of thisalternative approach and as such, the key features of the new Polish pension systemdesign.Introduction Demographic transition together with myopic policies has caused severe problems inthe area of pensions in many countries around the world.Elements of traditionalpension systems’ design include a weak link of benefits to contributions and the lackof control over costs of the system.Inclusion of these elements in the pension systemdesign led to the explosion of costs, caused negative externalities for
growth andcontributed to persistently high unemployment.As such, the quest for pension reformis now on the top of policy agendas around the world, and especially in Europe.However, very few countries have been able to introduce fundamental reforms in thearea of pensions to this time.In this case, the definition of reform is crucial.For thepurposes of this paper, “reform” means changing the system in order to removetructural inefficiencies – and not just playing at the margins with contribution rates and retirement ages to adjust the system’s parameters for short-term fiscal andpolitical reasons.Traditional pension systems have proven to be inefficient in providing societies withsocial security.At the same time attempts to cure these systems are hampered by alack of consensus on what could replace the traditional system.Discussions on thisissue involve confusion stemming from the ideological context of the discussionparticipants, as well as from overuse of such concepts as “pay-as-you-go” versus“funding”, or “public” versus “private”, while at the same time ignoring a number ofimportant economic issues.Furthermore, economists have traditionally ignored pensions.Designing and runningpension systems was left to non-economists, who were not extensively concernedwith how to finance pensions in the long-term or with how to counteract these pensionsystems’ negative externalities.The new Polish pension system belongs to very smallnumber of successful attempts to apply modern thinking in the area of pensions.Thisdoes not mean – as some may assume – giving up social security goals.Rather, thekey idea was to give up the inefficient methods of delivering social security in orderto save its goals and principles.This paper consists of two parts.The first focuses on a discussion of general issuesthat need to be addressed when designing a pension system.These issues arepresented in a way that goes beyond the traditional way of thinking on pensions.In regards to this second part of the paper, it is important to point out that mostcountries in the current EU member states and candidate countries have pensionsystems that are essentially the same at the basic policy level.As such, the solutionsin one member state or candidate country can be expected to be the same.Like European states such as France, Germany, Italy, the Czech Republic, Hungaryand other European states, Poland and Sweden over the past decades and until the late1990’s developed inefficient, costly pension systems.As such, in part two of thepaper we shall examine how Poland has now successfully implemented the approachpresented in the first part of the paper, and created a fundamentally strong and neutralpension system.8
Selected general issues Pension system design has to take into account a number of issues.Their fullpresentation and discussion goes beyond the scope of this paperThis paper presentsonly a list of the issues for consideration and the most important observations.The pension system: externalities versus neutralityThe description of a pension system depends strongly on both the aggregated andindividual viewpoint.From the aggregated perspective, the pension system is a way of dividing currentGDP between a part kept by the working generation and a part allocatedto the retired generation.From the individual perspective, the pension system is a way of income allocationover a person’s life cycle.The above holds irrespective to the technical method applied or the ideologicalviewpoint.The pension system – as defined above – is not necessarily pay-as-you-goor funded.Such features stem from technical elements additionally applied on the topof the pension system, rather than from the system itself.If the pension system designassumes anonymous participation and a substantial scale of redistribution then weusually call this system pay-as-you-go.If the pension system design uses financialmarkets, then we usually call it funded.However, these two typically used concepts do not exhaust all possible combinationsof anonymous versus individualised participation and financial versus non-financialpension system design techniques used.The dualistic pay-as-you-go versus fundedapproach leaves aside the combination of individual participation in a system thatdoes not use financial markets.This approach also neglects the fact that usingfinancial markets means investment(pension portfolio consists of private equities)ordeferring taxes(pension portfolio consists of government bonds), which is obviouslynot the same.Adding redistribution or financial markets to the pension system generatesexternalities.These externalities can be positive and negative.Redistribution withinthe pension system can generate positive externalities if the system is inexpensive,namely the part of GDP allocated to the retired generation is not large.If theredistribution is large, then it generates negative externalities, such as contributing topersistently high unemployment and weak growth.Using financial markets causespositive externalities for growth if the pension system spends contribution money oninvestment.If the contributions are spent on government debt they may lead tonegative externalities similar to those of large redistributive system, namely more taxdistortions.This can happen if the rate of return on government debt is persistentlyabove the rate of GDP growth.There exists yet another option, namely 9
to bring the pension system as close toeconomic neutrality as possible.This option requires, among other things, combiningindividual participation in the system with dividing GDP between generations basedon real economy developments, such as has been done in Poland and Sweden.Demographic structure: consequences of the change.Irrespective of the pension system design technique used, the pension systemexchanges a right of the retired generation for a part of the product of the workinggeneration.The exchange can be organised in various ways and also the rights can beexpressed in various ways.In particular, the rights can be either traded in the financialmarkets, or defined in relation to some economic variables, or just based on politicalpromise.In all of these cases there is a kind of market for pension rights.The workinggeneration finances contributions in order to purchase the rights;the retiredgeneration sells the rights in order to get a part of the product of the workinggeneration.The various types of pension systems create an institutional framework forthis market.Given the contribution rate, the demand side of the market is determined by the number of workers and their productivity.The number of retirees determines the demand side.However, if – as it is the case in traditional systems – pensions are administratively defined in terms of wages(replacement rate promised)then the pension system depends solely on the demographic structure.Even strong productivity growth cannot help in balancing the system’s revenue and expenditure.The general change of the demographic structure we see around the world has caused the pyramid scheme used for financing pension expenditure to no longer generate sufficient revenues.In consequence, previous minor inefficiencies have become devastating.Ageing turned the previous “pyramid-shape” demographic structure into a new “hut-shape” one, as illustrated in Figure 1.10
The pension system strongly depends on the demographic structure of the population.There is no escape from this dependency irrespective of pension system technique used.Using financial markets do not make pension systems immune from this dependency.Financial markets do help, however, in adjusting the system to the current demographic situation by introducing an easy to understand and acceptable link between benefits and contributions paid.The general change of the demographic structure around the world has caused severe fiscal problems for many countries.This change can be seen also from the viewpoint of being able to achieve the traditional social goals of the pension system.In this regard, two important observations are worth mentioning:
In the past, the minority – nowadays the vast majority – of those who pay contributions to the system as workers, afterwards receive benefits as retirees.This means that in the active phase of the individual’s life, participation in the pension system is very similar to long term saving.As the goal is to provide for each individual, using the individual as the main accounting unit becomes a superior way to organize the pension system.In the past, the pension system channelledGDP to the very old people who were unable to earn a living and finance consumption on their own.Nowadays people who retire are still able to work and earn, and they – on average have many years of life left to live.As such, the discussion above shows that the objective of the pension system has changed for the old-age part of the pension system(OA).However, the non-old-age parts of social security systems(NOA), such as disability, remain risk related, irrespective to ageing.This leads to the
conclusion that the various parts of the social security system should be segmented, such that revenues(contributions)and expenses(benefits)can be tied to their purpose exclusively over time, and each segment insulated from each other.In this way, policy makers would be able to look at each segment of the social security system, knowing that its revenues and expenses have been insulated from the risks of other parts of the system and are an accurate reflection of the current state of that segment and together of the system as a whole.The social security system, would then be made of an OA segment(pensions)and various NOA segments(disability, maternity, worker’s compensation, and so forth).This operational and accounting reform is one of the most important non-fiscal reasons for a deep pension reform and would provide policy makers with a powerful tool to understand how well their social security system can and will meet its goals.Pensions: Summary of the proposed approach Typically pension economics, as well as popular discussions, use the following opposing concepts as a central basis for thinking on pensions:
Pay-as-you-go versus funding;
Public versus private;Monopillar versus multipillar.This paper presents an alternative approach.This alternative approach can be summarised in the following four pairs of opposing concepts:
Universal(mandatory covering the entire population)versus partial(voluntary participation of a group of people);
Individualised(individual accounts)versus anonymous(no accounts)participation;
Task specific/segmented(OA separated from NOA)versus multitask(OA and NOA mixed within one scheme)organisation of social security;
Financial(generating the rate of return through financial markets)versus nonfinancial(generating the rate of return through real economy growth).The efficient pension system is designed in a way that makes it endogenous, which means it adjusts automatically without intervening from outside.The system needs only one decision, namely the initial choice of the contribution rate.The way of thinking on pensions based on the above set of comparisons can be useful for better
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