专业英语unit18译文

专业英语unit18译文（精选7篇）

1.专业英语unit18译文 篇一

Unit 18 Construction Layout（施工放样）

Engineering surveys are conducted to obtain data essential for planning, estimating, locating, and layout for the various phases of construction activities or projects.（工程测量是在施工活动或工程的不同阶段中为计划编制、估计、定位、和放样获取必需的【essential必需的】数据的行为【conduct这里是动词：处理，翻译时用名词 行为 代替】）After the necessary topographic maps are prepared and positions of the structures are established as well as the final plans for the project are available, the engineers, architects or building contractors need to know information about overall site grade and elevations to determine placement of site structures, or estimate the volume of dirt to be moved, and then to set the required horizontal and vertical positions for the structures.（在必要的地形图准备好、建筑物位臵已确定之后，同样项目的最终方案也是可用的，工程师、建筑师【architect】或承建者【building contractor承建者、承包者；contract合同】需要知道全部场地的坡度和高程来确定建筑场地的布臵或者土方估算【volume体积；estimate估计】，然后放臵建筑物的设计【required要求的，这里指设计位臵】水平和竖直位臵）

Construction surveying is the translation of construction plans into physical points on the ground that can be used as a basis for the actual construction.（施工测量【Construction surveying施工测量，不要翻译成建筑测量】是施工图【construction plan施工图】到地面上实地点位的转换【translation】，可以被用来作为实际施工的基础【或译为原理】。）

This type of surveying is sometimes called “construction layout” or “layout work”.（这种测量有时被称为“construction layout”或“layout work”）

Obviously construction surveying is the inverse operation of the activities with which the surveyor is usually associated: the gathering of data regarding real points and positions on the ground and representing those positions on a map.（显然施工测量【construction surveying】是测量者通常参与【associate参与、联合】的测量活动【activities】的逆过程【inverse operation逆过程；inverse反的】，这些通常的测量活动是实地点位数据的收集和那些位臵在图上的表示）

The surveyor performing construction surveying is taking a “map” representing proposed structures and placing that information on the ground.（进行施工测量的测量者持有一张标有【represent标示】设计建筑的“图纸”，并将其上的信息标定【place放臵】在地面上）

As you can see, the surveyor is literally involved from start to finish of a construction project.（正如你所看到的，测量者从始至终【from start to finish自始至终】完全【literally完全地、真正地；原意是逐字地】伴随【involve伴随、涉及、包括】施工项目）The results of construction surveying are seen in almost any urban, suburban, and even rural setting.（施工测量的成果能见于几乎任何城市的、郊外的、甚至乡村的工程【setting安臵；这里译为工程】）

Almost any roadway, building, or other man-made structure probably had some amount of construction surveying involved.（几乎任何道路，建筑，或其它人工建筑物都大概有一些施工测量在内）

Construction surveying provides not only the horizontal location of new man-made structures, but also the vertical information required to ensure that surfaces drain or pipes flow as required.（施工测量不只提供新人工建筑物的水平定位，还提供保证表面排水沟渠【drain】或管道【pipe】流动【flow】的竖向的信息）

Construction control: the first on-site job for the construction surveyor is to relocate the horizontal and vertical control used in the preliminary survey.（施工控制：施工测量人员第一项场区内【on site场区内】的工作是重建初测【preliminary survey初测】时的水平和竖直控制）【即工程测量中的定测阶段的：恢复初测控制网】

Generally speaking, the horizontal and vertical control used in the preliminary survey may not be used again in construction surveying.（一般而言，初测的水平和竖直控制在施工测量中不再使用）

Depending on the size and complexity of the project as well as the precision requirements, it may be necessary to reestablish the horizontal and vertical control in the areas of proposed construction.（依靠工程的大小和复杂性以及设计精度，必然【necessary必然的】可以在设计【proposed计划的、被提议的】建筑物所在场地重建水平和竖直控制）For example, the construction surveyor will establish one or more benchmarks in the general vicinity of the project.（例如，施工测量人员将在大体【general】临近工程附近【vicinity临近，附近n.in the vicinity of 在附近】建立一个或多个水准点）

These benchmarks are placed away from the immediate vicinity of the buildings so they will not be destroyed by the construction operations, and are used to provide vertical control for the project.（这些水准点被设臵在离建筑物较远的地方【away from远离；immediate vicinity紧靠n.直接译为：离建筑物较远】，以免它们被施工工作【operation工作、操作】破坏，并用来提供工程的竖直控制）

Once these are set, the surveyor will then establish a good many less permanent but more accessible benchmarks quite close to the project.（一旦这样，测量人员将建立一个很多【a good many很多】非永久的【permanent永久的】但是更易接近【accessible易接近的】于工程项目的水准点）

The location of these less permanent points should be carefully selected so that turning points will ideally not be needed when elevations have to be set at the project.（这些非永久的点位应当谨慎选取，以保证在对工程高程放样时尽量【ideally完美地、理想地】不需转点【turning point】）

Such careful selection of the points may result in critical time saving which is so important on construction project.（这些点的这种谨慎的选择，将会带来【result in导致，不符合中文习惯】关键的【critical批评的、危急的，可这里的意思是关键性的，即节省时间是关键性的】时间的节省，这在工程的施工工作【construction project】中非常重要）Layout: It is obviously critical for a construction job that the various parts of the structure be placed at the desired elevation.（放样：这明显是施工工作中的关键【critical关键的；或者：这明显对于施工工作来说是关键的】，建筑物的不同部分将放臵【测设】到设计高程上去）

To accomplish this goal the construction surveyor will establish the reference lines or base lines before the actual layout measurements begins.（为了完成这个目的，在实地放样测量开始之前施工测量人员将建立参考线或者基线）

For large construction projects, the usual procedure is to set down a main base line down the centerline of the structure, such as the centerline of the bridge.（对于大型施工项目，通常的【usual】做法【procedure程序】是将主基线设到建筑物的中心线位臵【即，以建筑物中心线为主基线】【set……down放下、设下】，例如桥中轴线）

The monuments are set along the centerline at each end beyond the area of the construction work.（沿中心线在越过施工场地两端设臵标石）【还是沿中心线设臵标石，中心线两端越过施工场地（沿中心线设臵标石，直至越过场地）？】

The monuments along the ends of the line may be occupied by the surveyor and will enable him to check and reset points within the construction areas.（测量者占据【occupy】基线两端的标石，使得他可以检查和重现放臵施工场地内的点）

The stakes and points set during the process of construction surveying are not usually set at the actual construction point, but usually on some sort of offset.（在施工测量过程中，所设的测桩和点位通常不在真实建筑点上，而是通常多少有些【some sort of】偏移【offset】）This is done so that the survey stake is not disturbed by excavation or other activities that will take place at the actual point of construction.（这么做是为了让测桩不受挖掘或其它在真实建筑点上会发生的活动的干扰）

The stakes are marked with an “offset” and a “grade”, which provides the construction crew with the special relationship of the construction stake to the actual point of construction.（测桩偏心设臵【offset平移 grade斜坡，指的是两种后果，直接译为 偏心】，给施工人员提供额外的【special额外的、特殊的】施工桩和实际建筑点之间的关系）The “offset” is the distance from the survey stake to the horizontal position of the actual point of construction, and would typically be three feet for curb and gutter to ten feet for underground pipes.（“平移量”是从测桩到实际建筑点的水平距离，有代表性的如 路边留3英尺，为地下管道开槽【gutter开槽v.槽n.】10英尺）

Techniques of layout: In construction layout measurement, the data necessary to establish the direction and distance from a control point to locate a construction point can be entered into the instrument via the keyboard or directly from an office computer.（放样方法：在施工放样测量中，在控制点为定位建筑点所需的方向和距离数据可以经由【via】键盘或直接通过办公室计算机输入仪器）

Then the surveyor guides the person holding the prism along the line of computed direction until the distance to the point to be located agrees with the computed distance.（然后测量人员引导【guide】手持棱镜的人沿计算出的方向线前行直至到所定点的距离与计算距离向吻合）

Various techniques may be applied to accomplish this goal.（完成这个目标有多种方法）A very popular technique called free station permits the surveyor to set up the total station at any convenient position and then to determine the coordinates and elevation of that instrument position by sighting previously coordinated reference stations.（一个非常流行的方法叫做自由设站法【free station自由设站法】，允许测量人员在任何便利的【convenient方便的】地方设臵全站仪，然后事先【previously】照准【sighting】已知坐标的【coordinated坐标已知的】参考位臵，以确定仪器站点的坐标和高程）

After the instrument has been set up over this instrument position(a control point)and properly oriented, angles or azimuths from the control point and distances to each layout point may be indicated.（在仪器在站点（控制点）设臵并适当定向【orient】后，从控制点到每个放样点的角度或方位角和距离就可以被指出【indicate】）

Now many total stations have such functions that the coordinates and elevations of the layout points may be uploaded into the total station, the instrument’s display shows the left/right, forward/back, and up/down movements needed to place the prism in each of the desired positions.（现在许多全站仪有这样的功能可以将放样点的坐标和高程输入全站仪，仪器的显示器【display显示器】会显示棱镜到每个设计点需要左/右，前/后，和上/下的移动）

As-built surveys: When the construction surveying has been completed, a final survey is performed.（竣工测量：当施工测量完成，最后的测量工作被执行）

The final survey includes cross sections and locations that are used for final payments to the contractor and for the completion of an as-built drawing.（最后的测量工作包括横断面图和定位，以用来【be used for用来做】做向承建人【contractor】末期付款【final payment】和完成竣工图【as-built drawing】用的）

These are the as-built surveys and they are used to check the contractor’s work and show locations of structures and their components(water line, sewer, etc.), which will be needed for future maintenance, changes, and new construction.（这些就是竣工测量，它们被用来检查承建人的工作和显示建筑物位臵以及它们的结构（水管，下水道，等等），将用来以后的维护【maintenance】、改造、和新建。）

2.专业英语unit18译文 篇二

unit 17

△madame curie 居里夫人(法国籍波兰科学家)

△pearl s.buck 赛珍珠(美国女作家〕

△mother teresa 特丽萨嬷嬷

inspire vt 鼓舞;感动;激发;启示

admire vt 钦佩;赞赏

generous adj 慷慨的;大方的

cheerful adj 愉快的高兴的

mean adj 卑鄙的;吝啬的

tense adj 紧张的;拉紧的

dull adj 迟钝的;无趣的;呆滞的

dishonest adj 不诚实的

champion n 冠军;得胜者;斗士

△the south pole 南极

△the north pole 北极

△polar adj 两极的;极地的

△antarctica n 南极洲

mile n 英里

△sled n 雪橇

around the corner n 即将来临;在拐角处

stormy adj 暴风雨的;多风暴的;激烈的

threaten vt 恐吓;威胁;预示(危险)

die down 变弱;平息;消失

△thaw vt 解冻

△slope n 斜坡;斜面;倾斜

bottom n 底部;尽头

optimistic adj 乐观的

△expedition n 远征;探险队

workday n 一天的工作时间;工作日

△woozy adj 眩晕的;虚弱的

somehow adv 某种方式;莫明其妙地;不知怎么地

shelter n 掩蔽;掩蔽处;避身处

regret n 遗憾;悔恨;抱歉;歉意 vt 为…感到遗憾;后悔

△solo adj 单独的

extreme adj 极端的;极度的;偏激的

extremely adv 非常地;极其地

climate n 气候

value vt “重视;估价;评价 n 价值;价格

△helen thayer 海伦•塞娅

pianist n 钢琴家;钢琴演奏者

△oprah winfrey 欧普拉•温弗丽

δ personality n 入物;个性;人格

come to terms with 甘心忍受(不愉快的处境)

bother vt 烦扰;打扰 vt 烦恼;操心 n 麻烦;烦搅;不便

fame n 名声，名望

promise n&vt (有)前途;允诺;答应

kindergarten n 幼儿园 adj 幼儿园的;启蒙阶段的

hardship n 困苦;艰难;贫困

bear vt 忍受;承受;负起

△discipline n 纪律;学科

△self-improvement n 自我改善;自我修养

scholarship n 奖学金;学问

graduation n 毕业;毕业典礼

△chicago n 芝加哥(美国城市)

3.专业英语unit18译文 篇三

1.be tired of对……感到厌倦;对……不感兴趣

You’ll soon be tired of the game.

很快你就会对这种游戏感到厌倦的。

I am tired of the same old breakfast every morning.

我厌烦每天早上吃同样的饭。

She is never tired of talking about her clever son.

谈起她聪明的儿子，她不厌其烦。

2. reject vt.排斥;丢掉;抛弃

He rejected my offer of help.

他拒绝了我的援助提议。

I proposed to her but she rejected me.

我向她求婚，但被她拒绝了。

He tried to join the army but was rejected.

他试图参军，但没有被接受。

She rejected my suggestions.

她拒绝了我的建议。

She rejected the green apples.

她扔掉了那些不熟的苹果。

3. break away from摆脱;脱离

The thief broke away from the policeman and ran away.

那个贼挣脱警察逃走了。

He broke away from all his old friends.

他与所有的老朋友断绝了关系。

It is difficult to break away from a habit.

改掉习惯是很困难的。

It was not right for the South to break away from the Union.

南方脱离联邦是不对的。

4. possibility n.可能性;可能;可能的事

the possibility of success成功的可能性

the possibility of rain下雨的可能性

Is there any possibility of having a sunny weekend?

周末有可能会阳光明媚吗?

There is a possibility of his coming for Christmas.

他可能会来过圣诞节。

Is there any possibility that he will be elected chairman?

他有当选主席的可能吗?

There is quite a possibility that war may break out.

很有可能会爆发战争。

His retirement is a possibility.

他有可能退休。

5. attempt vt.尝试;企图

The prisoner attempted an escape but failed.

那个犯人企图逃走，但失败了。

They attempted a surprise attack.

他们企图偷袭。

They attempted to climb Mt. Everest.

他们试图攀登额菲尔士峰。

He attempted breaking the world record.

他试图打破世界记录。

attempt n.尝试，企图;企图杀害

He made an attempt to learn to ski.

他尝试着学滑雪。

He failed in his attempt to win first prize.

他试图获得头奖，但却失败了。

They made an attempt on the life of the president.

他们企图刺杀总统。

attempted adj.未遂的，意图的

an attempted murder/suicide

杀人未遂/自杀未遂

6. connection n.联系;因果关系;联结

There is no connection between the two incidents.

那两个事件之间没有关联。

Doctors say there is a connection between smoking and lung cancer.

医生们说抽烟与肺癌有关系。

He has connections with many important people.

他与很多重要人物有来往。

in connection with与……相关联，关于

She said nothing in connection with her marriage.

她绝口不谈与她的婚姻有关的事。

connect vt.连接，把……联系起来;接通(电源、电话等)

The road connects London and Edinburgh.

这条道路连接伦敦与爱丁堡。

Their families are now connected by marriage.

他们两家有联姻关系。

The operator will connect you with our sales department.

接线员会与你接通我们的销售部。

be connected with与……有联系，和……有关系

He is no longer connected with the Kane Company.

他已与凯恩公司没有关系了。

7. aware adj.察觉到的，感觉到的，知悉的。一般用作表语，后接of短语或从句。

He wasn’t aware of the danger.

他没有察觉到危险。

Smokers are well/quite aware of the dangers to their own health.

吸烟者很清楚吸烟会对他们自身的健康造成种种危害。

She became aware of footsteps hurrying after her.

她觉察到身后有匆忙的脚步声。

Are you aware that you have hurt her feelings?

你有没有察觉到你已经伤害她的感情了?

I became aware how she might feel.

我察觉到她会有怎样的感受。

He was aware that he had drunk too much.

他晓得他喝了太多的酒。

Are you aware how much this means to me?

你晓得这对我有多大意义吗?

8. respect vt.尊敬，尊重

Children ought to respect their elders.

小孩应该尊敬长辈。

Ihope you will respect her wishes.

我希望你能尊重她的愿望。

respect n.尊敬，尊重

I have (a) deep/great respect for him.

我对他非常尊敬。

He showed no respect for their rights.

他不尊重他们的权利。

respected adj.受人尊敬的

The teacher is greatly respected in this school.

这位老师在这个学校很受人尊敬。

9. application n.用途;应用;申请;申请书

The application of what you know will help you solve new problems.

应用你的知识可帮你解决新问题。

That rule has no application to this particular case.

那项条款不适用于这一特殊案例。

The invention has no practical application.

那项发明没有实际的用途。

The manager received twenty applications for the post.

该经理收到对这个岗位的20份申请。

They rejected his application of the membership.

他们拒绝了他成为会员的请求。

You should make an application to the embassy for a visa.

你应向大使馆申请签证。

§2.2发散思维

1. allow v.允许，容许

allow sb.to do sth.允许某人做某事

The nurse allowed him to stay in hospital for another two days.

那个护士准许他在医院再住两天。

allow doing sth.允许做某事

We don’t allow making noise here,so you must keep quiet.

我们不允许在这儿弄出噪音，请你保持安静。

allow vt.给予(时间、金钱);同意给予。后常接双宾语。

He allows his wife $200 a month for clothes.

他每个月给妻子200美元买新衣服。

Allow me one minute in which to change my clothes.

请给我一分钟的时间让我换换衣服。

Please allow yourself an hour to get to the airport.

请给自己留出一小时的时间好赶往飞机场。

allow for顾及，考虑到

This journey usually takes 3 weeks,but you should allow for delays caused by bad weather.

这趟旅行通常需时三周，但是你应考虑到恶劣天气所造成的延误。

We must allow for the train being late-it always is.

我们必须考虑到火车会晚点，它一向如此。

You can’t make it in an hour;you must allow for the heavy traffic.

一个小时你是到达不了的，你要考虑到交通是很拥挤的。

2. otherwise adv.要不然，否则;另外，别样;在其他方面

He reminded me of what I should have otherwise forgotten.

他提醒了我，要不然我就忘了。

He thinks otherwise.

他是另外一种想法。

He thinks otherwise he’s a good worker.

从另一方面来说他是个好工人。

otherwise conj.(并列连词，同or else)否则，不然(常与虚拟语气连用)

You should go now,otherwise you’ll miss the bus.

你应该现在走，不然你就赶不上公交车。

Do come earlier next time,otherwise you’ll be punished.

下次一定早点来，否则就惩罚你。

He is old and sick,otherwise he would be working.

他年老有病，不然他会上班的。

otherwise adj.另外的，别样的;其他方面的

Some are wise,some are otherwise.

有些人贤明，有些人则不然。

His students in English are also his otherwise teachers.

4.专业英语unit18译文 篇四

一、重点词汇与短语

1.由come构成的常用短语：

come about出现;发生

come across偶然遇到或找到

come along进展

come around/round恢复;还原

come at达到;得到

come back反驳;回来;恢复

come by经过;取得

come down失去财富或地位;下来;倒塌

come in到达;进来

come off离开;举行;实现

come upon偶然发现或遇到

come through经历;传出

come up走近;发生

come over过来;抓住

come to达到;继承

come out发行或发表;结束;结果;出来

come on快点;赶快

2.与think相关的短语:

come to think of it细想一下

think a lot of喜欢;尊敬

think aloud自言自语

think and think细想

think away想开了;想得忘了

think back to回忆起

think twice再三考虑, 踌躇

think for认为;预料

think over仔细考虑

think to oneself盘算, 自思自忖

First think, then speak. (谚)先思而后言

Think about/ of思考, 考虑; 回顾, 想起; 想到(某人, 某事)

Think better of改变看法; (对某人)有较高的评价

Think highly (much/ no end/ well) of…评价及高; 重视, 尊重; 器重, 抗得起

Think little/ nothing of轻视, 满不在乎; 对……毫不考虑. 毫不踌躇

Think one is it自以为了不起, 自高自大

Think (sth.) out/ through仔细考虑; 想出; 设计出

Thank today and speak tomorrow. (谚)熟思而后言

Think up想出, 想起; 捏造, 虚构; 设计出, 发明

3.由look构成的常用断语

look at看; 注视

look for找,寻找

look to注意; 指望

look into调查

look after照料

look down on轻视, 看不起

look forward to盼望;期待

look in顺便看望; 短暂访问

look out注意

look over翻阅, 浏览

look up好转; 仰望; 拜访

look down upon轻视; 轻蔑

look up to仰望; 尊敬

look back (与on, to连用)回想, 记忆

look on(常与as连用)旁观; 看作

二、词义辨析

1.too much与 much too大不相同

too much: 中心词在much, 意为 “太多,过分”, 在句中作定语,修辞不可数名词,也可用作状语, 修辞动词, 还可用作主语、表语等.

例如:

Sorry that I’ve put you too much trouble.

很抱歉给你添了太多麻烦.

He drank too much at the dinner party.

餐会上他喝的太多了.

It really is too much of your father to bring guests home to dinner without letting me know in advance.

你父亲实在太过分了,事先不告诉我一声就带客人到家里来吃饭.

Too much has been talked about the topic.

关于这个话题已经谈过太多了.

much too: 中心词在too, 意思是 “极其,非常”, 修辞形容词或副词,表示程度.

例如:

The problem is much too difficult for me.

这道题对我来说太难了.

His condition is much too bad, and needs a further examination.

他的身体状况非常糟糕, 需要作进一步检查.

2.辨析：though, although, even though, as though

although 和 though：“虽然，尽管”的意思。都可用作连词引导让步状语从句，两者可互换。

例如：

They are generous although/ though they are poor.

他们尽管穷，却十分慷慨。

though 引导让步状语从句时和as一样，表语可以提前;此外，though 还可以用作副词。

例如：

Hardworking though/as he was, there was never enough money to pay the bills.

他虽然工作很辛苦，但却一直是入不敷出。

It’s a hard work; I enjoy it, though.

这是件苦差，不过我倒很乐意干。(though 用作副词)。

even though：和even if同义， “尽管，即使,纵然”，用作连词引导让步状语从句，语气比though, although更强。

例如：

She won’t leave the television set, even though/ even if her husband is waiting for his supper.

即使她丈夫等着她吃晚饭，她也不愿意离开电视机。

as though：和as if 同义，“好像，仿佛”，用作连词，引导表语从句和方式状语从句。

例如：

He sounds as though/ as if he’s got s sore throat.

他的声音听起来好像是喉咙痛。

He opened his lips as though/ as if he would say something.

他张开嘴，好像要说什么。

三、重点句型

1.Now that we are developing new technology at such a high pace, the true challenge is to find new ways of using it. 既然我们正高速地发展新技术, 真正的挑战在于寻找新的使用途径.

now that是固定短语, 意为 “既然; 由于”, 引出原因状语从句, that可省略.

如:

Now (that) he is well again, he can go on with his English study.

2.Maybe it is time for the rest of society to accept me as I am and get used to the fact that while I may not be able to walk, there are many other great things I can do. 或许到了社会上的其他人承认我的时候了, 到了他们接受这样一事实的时候: 虽然我不会走路, 但仍有很多事情我可以做.

accept…as…“承认……是, 同意……是, 认可……是”. 如

We have to accept things as they are.

while此处意为 “虽然; 尽管”. 如:

While he has many friends, Peter is often lonely.

3.If we look only for the correct answer and reject ideas that don’t provide a complete answer, we may get stuck, 如果我们只找正确答案, 拒绝那些不能给我们完整答案的想法, 我们就可能被困住.

get stuck是被动语态, 意为 “被困住; 被卡住”. 如

I got stuck in a heavy traffic jam.

四、语法复习

复习定语从句

1.关系代词as引导的定语从句.

as可以引导限制性定语从句, 也可以引导非限制性定语从句, as在从句中可做主语, 宾语, 表语.

如:

The people as you describe are thought to be fools.

As is known to all, Edison invented the telephone.

as引导非限制性定语从句时和which的区别:

(1)as引导的非限制性定语从句可以放在句首,句中,句末; which引导的非限制性定语从句只能放在主句的后面.

(2)as经常和be, 和被动语态连用; which引导的非限制性定语从句中经常用主动语态.

(3)as多用于这些习惯用语中:as anybody can see; as is well-known; as we had expected; as often happens; as it is; as has been said before; as is mentioned above; as is often the case. / which

2.代词/数词/名词+of whom引导的非限制性定语从句.

如:

I have many friends, some of whom are businessmen.

或:I have many friends, of whom some are businessmen.

Recently I bought an ancient Chinese vase, the price of which was very reasonable.

或:Recently I bought an ancient Chinese vase, whose price was very reasonable.

The Chinese team won 16 gold medals in Barcelona Olympic Games, 12 of which were won by women.

或:The Chinese team won 16 gold medals in Barcelona Olympic Games, of which 12 were won by women.

3.time当先行词: 若作为 “时间”讲, 关系代词用that或省略; 作为”一段时期”讲, 用when引导定语从句. 如:

There was a time when I hated to go to school.

It’s time that we went to school.

4.定语从句中谓语动词与先行词保持一致.

如:

He is the only one of the students who is often praised by the teacher.

He is one of the students who are often praised by the teacher.

5.对于一些既可以作主语, 宾语, 表语, 又可以作状语的先行词, 我们在选择关系代词或关系副词时, 可以使用 “代入法”, 把先行词代入到定语从句中, 看它所作的成分, 如果能作的是主语, 宾语, 表语, 那么我们就用关系代词, 如果它作的是状语, 那么我们用关系副词.

This is the reason why he had a few days off.

This is the reason that或which或不填 he told me.

I’ll never forget the days that或which或不填

We spent together.

I’ll never forget the days when we worked together.

This is the place that或which或不填 we visited

last year.

This is the place we where worked last year.

6.注意way后接定语从句的情况

当先行词是, way意为 “方式” “方法”时, 引导定语从句的关系代词有三种情况: that; in which和省略.

如:

The man was puzzled by the familiar way that/in which/省略 the waiter and I chatted with each other.

【考点透视 考例精析】

[考点] 现在完成进行时态表示动作从过去某一时间开始一直延续到现在, 且有可能继续下去。

[考例1] Now that she is out of job, Lucy _______ going back to school, but she hasn’t decided yet.

A.had considered B.has been considered

C.considered D.is going to consider

[点拨] 选B。根据所提供的情景but she hasn’t decided yet，说明Lucy 还在考虑这件事，也就是说consider这个动作过去已经开始一直持续到现在，且仍然在继续进行。这里要用现在完成进行时态。

[考点] “must have +-ed” 表示对过去发生的动作或状态作出的肯定判断或推测，翻译成“(过去)一定...”。

[考例2] -- The woman biologist stayed in Africa studying wild animals for 13 years before she returned.

-- Oh, dear! She ________ a lot of difficulties!

A. may go through B. might go through

C.ought to have gone through D.must have gone through

[点拨] 选D。根据上文stayed in Africa studying wild animals for 13 years，说明下面一句是对过去发生动作的肯定的推测。意思是：“她一定经受了不少困难。”

[考例3] -- Tom is never late for work. Why is he absent today?

-- Something ________ to him.

A.must happen B. should have happened

C. could have happened D.must have happened

[点拨] 选D。“Tom从来不迟到，但现在每来”。所以这里要用must have done 对过去的情况作出肯定的推测。should have done 表示“过去本应该做...(而事实上没做)”;could have done 表示“过去本能/可以做...(而没做)”，含有责备的语气。

[考例4] This cake is very sweet. You ________ a lot of sugar in it.

A. should put B.could have put C.might put D.must have put

[点拨] 选D。句义是：“饼很甜，肯定放多了糖”。表示对过去动作的肯定推测或判断。

[考点] cut 构成的固定短语。cut up切碎; cut down 砍倒;cut out 切断; cut in 插嘴，打断。

【基础演练】

一、根据所给首字母或括号中的汉语意思填写句子空格中所缺的单词。

1.He is wearing a sad ______ (面部) expression.

2.The boy is very ______ (好奇) about everything and always asking strange questions.

3.The prisoner _________ (企图) an escape but failed.

4.You should go now, o______ you’ll miss the bus.

5.He _______ (拒绝) my offer of help.

6.His father has a s______ of humour.

7.What does the word m_______ in the context?

8.We should not judge a peoson just by his a________. I think his quality is more important.

9.Children are not p______ to swim here; it’s too dangerous.

10.You must pay attention to your p______ a and intonation when you read the text.

二、单项填空

1.It is quite obvious ______we must apply other methods of setting the problem.

A.whether B.what C.how D.that

2.The boy is not very smart, so ______often takes him quite a while to do what he is told to.

A. there B.that C.they D.it

3.Today there are more opportunities for disabled people to make ______contribution to ______society.

A. a; the B.a; 不填 C.不填; the D.the; a

4.He promised to send me an invitation to visit their country ______until I was 60 years old.

A. each two years B. each other year

C.every other year D. every second years

5.We can’t finish the work in such a short time; you must ______our lack of experience.

A.allow to B.allow for C. allow of D.allow into

6.I felt very disappointed when my repeated request that I join the club was ______.

A.replaced B.resisted C.rejected D.removed

7.He is quite ______of the risk, but he has no choice but to go ahead.

A.eager B.aware C.sensitive D.serious

8.The man tried to break into the shop during the night, but got ______in the chimney.

A.stuck B.to be stuck C.sticking D.to stick

9. The criminal ______from the two policemen who were holding him and ran away.

A.broke off B.broke away C.broke up D.broke down

10. ______that my head had cleared, my brain was also beginning to work much better.

A. For B.Despite C.Since D.Now

【能力拓展】

In America, seldom do you go anywhere without hearing a principle called WIN-WIN. It sounds strange to me at first because throughout my childhood, I have always been taught to try everything possible to win an upper-hand, rather than to help other people win. However, as time goes by, I have gradually comprehended the essence(真谛)of WIN-WIN principle─it is the attitude of seeking mutual benefit.

When I was little, I used to play Chinese checkers(跳棋)which include two basic tactics(战术): One is to create paths for yourself; the other is to block the passages of your rival. Players may apply these two totally different approaches in the game, but the key for the player to win is to continuously create paths for him even if his opponent may take advantage of it. Finally he can always reach the destination(目的地)a few steps ahead of the other player. Meanwhile, some player may take another approach to prevent his opponent from moving forward at all costs. By this he may get a short-term benefit, but couldn’t fix attention on the final goal, thus he would never truly develop further.

In the 1990s, a strategy called WIN-WIN became widespread in the western world. Its core is to achieve your objective while giving other people some benefits, so there is no real loser. One example of applying the WIN-WIN principle is the voluntary system in US. Most Americans advocate(提倡)the spirit of social service and voluntary contribution. In US, schools and children organizations usually encourage and support kids to be engaged in community service so that the voluntary spirit can be enrooted in their minds from childhood. Moreover, a crucial(决定性的)standard for universities to judge new students is whether they have worked for the community or not.

In China, it is quite usual that some people are too selfish and never take other people’s interests into consideration, while someone who really has courage to do something for the public is often called “foolish” or “stupid”. Actually helping other people can be of great delights for the helper, for he can also learn something crucial for his life such as sympathy, care, devotion, etc. So only if you take other people’s interests into earnest consideration can you assure your own gain.

1.The purpose of the author in writing the passage is __________.

A.to tell us the cultural differences between China and USA.

B. to tell us the different educational systems both in US and China.

C. to tell us the importance and meaning of WIN-WIN.

D.to show that WIN-WIN is popular in US and China.

2. Which of the following can be the best example of carrying out the Win-Win principles?

A. Volunteers B.Chinese C.Service workers D.Children

3.What is the author’s attitude towards Win-Win?

A.criticism B.encouragement C.disagreement D.doubt

4.Which of the following statements in NOT true for WIN-WIN principle?

A.to take others’ interests seriously

B.to learn something useful for our life

C.to gain mutual benefit

D.to try to get some benefits from others

5.The underlined words “at all costs” in the second paragraph means “_______” in Chinese.

A.代价高 B.不惜任何代价 C.完全失败 D.以全部费用

参考答案

高二部分

Units 17-18 (B2)

基础演练

一、1.facial 2.curious 3.attempted 4.otherwise/or 5.rejected 6.sense 7.mean 8.appearance 9.permitted 10.pronunciation

二、1.D 2.D 3.B 4.C 5.B 6.C 7.B 8.A 9.B 10.D

能力拓展

1-5 CABDB

1. C 主旨题。文章主要讲双赢的意义和重要性。

2. A 文章第三段 “Its core is to achieve your objective while giving other people some benefits, so there is no real loser. One example of applying the WIN-WIN principle is the voluntary system in US.” 解释了WIN-WIN原则, 并举例说明了这一原则的应用。

3. B 推理题.根据全文可推测作者的态度。答案: B。

4. D 了解双赢的原则：Its core is to achieve your objective while giving other people some benefits, so there is no real loser. (其核心是达到自己目标的同时给别人以利益) 我们可判断 D 项不符合WIN-WIN原则。

5.Unit 20 译文 篇五

Unit 20-1

第一部分：从灾难中学习

虽然泰坦尼克号和兴登堡的灾难已经过去了几十年，但它们却开始引起人们对于现代系统安全工程的极大关注。两者都是当时规模最大的，最先进的技术，相当于今天正在开发并用于许多行业，对安全要求很高的基于计算机控制的系统。这些灾难的例子最可怕之处也许不是那些在事后分析中看到的明显错误，而是它们和近期所发生事故之间的相似之处。

泰坦尼克号沉没最令人震惊之处在于卷入这起事件的人们竟自鸣得意到难以置信的地步。爱德华时代末年是对工程和科学进步充满信心的年代，将如此多生命送上绝路的决定也许正是这种极度自信的结果。然而，曾于1985年发现失事的皇家油轮泰坦尼克号的著名海洋学家罗伯特巴拉德博士，将泰坦尼克号和发生于1986年1月的挑战者号航天飞机失事这两起事件划上等号，指出正是对技术的过分自信和对自然环境力量的藐视导致了两起事件中指挥者的疏忽。

甚至官方报告也反映出一种毫无根据的自信，报告中讨论了救生艇准备的不足，除了委婉地指出这些救生艇已陈旧之外没有提出任何明显的批评。同样地，报告提到望远镜，泛光灯和其他瞭望员的辅助设备达不到与泰坦尼克号的级别，却没有承认这些是设备上的缺陷。“发生了令人遗憾的事故，但责任在其他方面”这样的基调可以在更近期的许多事故报告中看到。

泰坦尼克号的灾难也提出了一些技术问题。船体外壳的结构是如何定下来的？船舱的数量，舱壁的高度和保证生存的所需设施是依赖什么分析数据决定的？也许对当时的技术水平来说提出这样的问题不公平，但是现代也有相似的案例。例如，（我们可以）把（船）可能发生正面冲撞的假设与汽车制造厂对新车进行撞车试验这种几乎完全一样的假设相比较，对撞车试验的规定直到1997年才得到加强。

兴登堡事件还强调了其他一些同样挑战着现代工程师们的安全工程问题。这些问题中最明显的一个可能就是改变设计后需对安全性做重新评估。在兴登堡事件中，这样的改动有两方面：对先前成功的设计做了修改（放大）；当意识到没有足够的氦能使如此巨大的船体浮起来后对设计思路也做了修改。建造如此巨大轻巧的结构对工程提出的严峻挑战令人钦佩地得到了解决，但是却没有考虑到改变采用的纤维处理所造成的似乎很小的影响。特别令人感兴趣的是，在已知静电积累是一个明显问题的情况下，已经注意到了对框架和金属部件提供放电回路。

最近由兴登堡的制造者齐柏林公司所揭露的隐情也很有趣。同样地，也有许多现代的相似案例：诸如Piper Alpha, Bhopal 和Seveso事故等都企图隐藏其善后情况，或者至少能低调地处理先前事故的证据，操作中存在的问题和安全管理的不足。

这些意见可以应用到任何行业的安全工程与管理中。本质上，安全是一种经验性的纪律；运用过去出错时的经验教训可以避免意外，而历史数据正是经验最重要的资源之一。过去150年航空事业的发展正说明了这一点。这些早期的发展是以“试飞－修改－试飞”模式为特征的，也许更确切的是“试飞－但愿存活－修改－试飞”。

早期飞行开拓者越是谨慎，越是选择付给别人报酬或试图说服他们来试飞自己的作品。据说1853年George Cayley先生的马车夫在完成了一份简报并驾驶Cayler的一架滑翔机自由地飞过约克郡河谷后提出辞职，理由是：“尊敬的先生，我不是雇来飞行的”。当时事故、受伤和死亡事故很频繁，因为工程师们都在努力掌握飞行的基本知识，而很少关心安全问题。

相比之下，到20世界末飞行已经成为最安全的旅行方式之一。波音客机的数据显示，到1996年底世界范围内已由12343架商业喷气飞机组成了一支庞大的机群，飞行总数达到1630万次。1996年仅发生了30起有乘客或机组人员死亡的事故，造成1300人死亡，达到一百万次飞行中死亡80人的比率。每次事故之后都会组织大规模的调查寻到事故原因，判断是否需要修改飞机设计，增强机组人员的训练或流程来防止类似事故再次发生。这些调查报告广泛的传播以让整个业界受益。

Unit 20-2

第二部分：人为错误的教训

1988年苏联福波斯I号卫星失踪在飞向火星的途中。什么原因？根据《科学》杂志的说法，是因为发射后不久地面控制中心在发往飞船的一系列数字指令中略去了一个字母。由于运气不好，这个字母的缺少使代码被误译，从而触发了测试序列（测试序列存储在ROM中，只是准备飞船在地面上时用于熟悉性能的）。福波斯折戟沉沙，就此无法恢复。

多么奇怪的报告：只是“运气太坏”吗？为什么是运气坏而不是坏的设计？难道不是命令语言设计的问题使这样一起异常事件导致了如此严重的后果？

电噪声对于信号的检测、识别和可靠性的影响是众所周知的。设计者会使用误码检测和纠错编码来解决这一问题。让我们假定是某些已知来源的干扰破坏了传送到福波斯的信号，这样我们就不会去责备地面控制者了。我们会说系统的设计者没有遵从标准的工程惯例，会重新考虑系统的设计，以防止今后再出现这种问题。

人们错了。因为这就是生活的现实。人不是精确设计的机器。实际上人类是一种完全不同的“装置”。我们的强项是创造性、适应性、灵活性。持续不断的警戒、行动或记忆的精确性则是我们的弱点。我们容忍错误的能力是惊人的，甚至在有物理损伤也如此。我们非常灵活、健壮、富有创造能力，具有极强的能力从不完整的和受干扰的证据中寻求解释和理解含义。而导致健壮性和创造性的同样秉性却也产生错误。解释不完整信息的本能虽然是我们的基本优势，却可以使一名操作者以这样一种貌似有理的方式误解系统的行为，从而使这种误解难以被发觉。

我们对人类行为，以及它是如何用于与系统之间交互的了解已经相当多了。人类所犯的好几类错误已经得到确认和研究，可以事先确定，在什么情况下发生错误的可能性会增加。可以设计通信系统使之具有容忍误码、检测误码、纠正误码的能力。类似地，我们可以发明一种容错、检错或使人机交互降至最小的科学。

在我们对信息处理系统硬件和软件的理解方面已经取得了许多进步，但是还有一个缺口，这就是将操作者包括到系统分析之中。一个信息处理系统的行为并不只是设计指标的产物，而是人和系统交互作用的产物。设计者必须将系统中包括人在内的所有组成部分，以及他们之间的相互作用考虑进去。这一领域的各种技术出版物表明了对软件和硬件的关注，可是缺乏对人类功能和能力的强

调。许多信息系统的失败要归咎于人为错误而不是设计问题。我们还将遭遇失败直到学会改变我们的方法。

需要做的第一件事就是改变态度。我们称之为人为错误的行为和系统噪声一样地可预测，也许更甚。因此，不要责怪那些恰好与此有关的人，最好还是试图找出导致事故的系统特性，然后修改设计以消除相应危险，或者至少将它对未来事件的影响减至最小。一个主要步骤是将“人为错误”这个名词从我们的词汇表里去掉，重新评价是否应责怪具体人员。第二个主要步骤是制定设计指标，将人的作用考虑在内，并赋予它和系统其他部分相同的重视程度。

根据美国《科学》杂志关于苏联探测火星事件的报道，好像是控制人员的无能造成了事故。《科学》采访了苏联飞船制造厂经理罗尔德·克莱姆涅夫。这份杂志对这次采访的报道是这样的：“发生错误的控制人员受到了什么处分？克莱姆涅夫以阴沉的语气告诉《科学》杂志，他没有被送进监狱或发配西伯利亚。实际上正是他最终找到了程序中的错误。不过克莱姆涅夫说，这位控制人员未能再参加以后福波斯的工作。”采访者提出的问题和克莱姆涅夫的回答预先都已经有了责备的观念。尽管操作者查出了错误所在，他还是受到了惩罚（不过至少没有被流放）。可是编程语言的设计者和所用的软件或方法又怎样呢？没有提到。用这种态度进行处理所产生的问题是，它使我们不能从事故中学到什么，使错误潜伏的情况依旧。

由于“人为错误”而导致计算机系统失败的事件在每个行业都很容易找到，例如核电、航空、商务、股市，当然还有计算机工业本身。在Communications of the ACM（美国计算机协会通信）1989年8月出版的一期中，下列论述出现在新闻追踪栏目中：埃克森石油公司休斯顿总部一名计算机操作员被解雇，该操作员漫不经心地销毁了数以千计文件的电脑拷贝，这些文件中包含与阿拉斯加石油溢出有关的重要信息。然而这位前雇员说他只是替罪羊，在他删除的磁带中没有任何一盘标有“不得销毁”的文字。关于这一事故提供的信息太少，不能得出结论。但如果系统设计中将人的因素考虑了进去，那么磁带的保留就不会仅仅依赖于一条 “不得销毁”的（人为）标签了。这样就既不会发生事故，也不会提供貌似有理的借口了。也许现在是ACM在这一方面带头在计算机系统设计方面采取措施的时候了。ACM的成员中有足够的专长，这些成员包括计算机和公共政策委员会，以及一个专门关注相关问题的研究组：人机交互专门研究组（SIGCHI）。

还有一个方便的起点可以启动这方面的工作。在计算机网络上，Peter Neumann主持着一个很有意义的论坛，即关于计算机和相关系统中公众所面临风险的论坛，作为ACM计算机和公众政策委员会的一项活动。这一“风险”论坛收集、报告、评论各种包括人为错误和设计问题的事故，但这些对于该领域的专业性发展并不具备足够的准确性和权威性。信息来源通常是传媒的报告，而这些报告是不完整的，通常是在全部有关信息收集齐全之前写就的，并受到其他不准确的和有偏向的消息来源的影响。（以上本人引述的《科学》杂志和CACM新闻反映了所有这些不可靠的来源。）通过对设计失败的仔细分析可以得到许多潜在的好处，其他学科领域学会了通过仔细检讨和分析而受益。在回顾“风险”论坛中所讨论的案例中，为什么不将它们用作更好设计的指南呢？

其他行业中正在使用着的好几种系统可以提供一个范例。航空界一个有价值的主要咨询信息源是称为航空安全报告系统（ASRS）的事故汇集（信息库），这是由美国宇航局Ames研究中心（NASA-Ames）运作的，带有Battelle公司管理的计算机可读取的数据库。这里，见证或发生错误或其他有关问题的航空界人员将对事故的描述，以及他们对事故的解释写下来，寄给ASRS。ASRS的调查人员可以召回他们以核对材料的准确性或取得更多的信息。但是一旦信息被确认和澄清，表

格中包含提供信息人员身份的有关部分就被返回本人。ASRS还将可确认身份的信息删除，使得人们不可能确定谁是提供消息者和事故的有关人员。这种匿名制度是保证数据库准确性和完整性的关键。因为美国宇航局不具备统制权，而且有保护消息来源机密的良好记录，这一数据库得到了航空界的信任。现在人们如果相信他们的报告将有助于改进航空安全，就会愿意叙述他们自己的行为。驾驶员坐舱和飞机其它部分设计的许多改进都是经过设计者研究了数据库中能找到的错误情况后做出的。

ASRS系统的一个关键因素就是，其中的报告不能被信息提供者的上司看到。其他行业的类似尝试均告失败，因为他们的报告是通过一系列的权威机关提交的，其中包括有关人员的上司或工厂管理层，他们是有偏向的，或者对报告进行处理以减轻责任，或者做出对报告的否定判断。这样一来，关于核工业事故的报告系统对于实际的运作实践就不是一种无偏见的指南。连同确认和澄清体系一起，匿名制度和自我报告制度起到了它的作用，如美国宇航局的ASRS团队（主要由退休的航空专业人士组成）所做的那样。

类似地，美国国家交通安全局（NTSB）也对交通事故进行详细分析，包括航空、高速公路、海运、铁路、输油管。这些报告非常有价值，是相关行业提高安全性的重要因素。（根据法令，NTSB报告不得用于确定事故责任的司法程序。这种保护性措施在当前这种动不动就诉诸法律的社会中，对于调查能进行下去而不用担心其结果会被错误解释或滥用是具有关键作用的。）

6.专业英语unit18译文 篇六

Logistics

教学目的和要求：

1.了解物流的定义 2.了解物流的组成模块 3.了解货物流和信息流

教学重点：

1.物流的定义 2.物流的组模块 3.货物流和信息流

教学过程：

一、复习提问

1.What is the definition of multimodal transport? 2.What are the advantages of multimodal transport? 3.What are the different types of multimodal transport operations?

二、New Words and Expressions

logistics

军事后勤学，物流

supply chain

供应链

value chain

价值链

demand chain

需求链

inventory

库存

warehousing

仓储

integration

整合

procurement

采购

inbound

向内的，入内的

三、Definition of Logistics

Logistics is the process of planning, implementing, and controlling the efficient, effective flow and storage of goods, services and related information from point of origin to point of consumption for the purpose of conforming to customer requirements.(The Council of Logistics Management)

Logistics is the process of strategically managing the procurement, movement and storage of materials, parts and finished inventory(and the related information flows)through the organization and its marketing channels in such a way that current and future profitability are maximized through the cost-effective fulfillment of orders.(Martin Christopher)

四、The Logistical Value Proposition

It has been established that logistics should be managed as an integrated effort to achieve customer satisfaction at the lowest total cost.The modern challenge is to create value.五、The Work of Logistics

For a supply chain to realize the maximum strategic benefit of logistics, the full range of functional work must be integrated.It is the interrelation of functions that challenges the successful implementation of integrated logistical management.Work related to these functional areas combines to create the capabilities needed to achieve logistical value.(1)Order Processing

In most supply chains, customer requirements are transmitted in the form of orders.The processing of orders

 Order receipt

 Delivery

 Invoicing  Collection

(2)Inventory

The objective in inventory strategy is to achieve desired customer service with the minimum inventory commitment.Five aspects of selective deployment for a sound inventory strategy

 Core customer segmentation

 Product profitability

 Transportation integration

 Time-based performance

 Competitive performance

(3)Transportation

Transportation is the operational area of logistics that geographically moves and positions inventory.Transportation requirements can be satisfied in three basic ways. A private fleet of equipment may be operated. Contracts may be arranged with dedicated transport specialists. An enterprise may engage the services of a wide variety of carriers that provide different transportation services on a per shipment basis.From the logistical system viewpoint, three factors are fundamental to transportation performance

 Cost

 Speed

 Consistency

In designing a logistical system, a delicate balance must be maintained between transportation cost and service quality.(4)Warehousing, Materials Handling, and Packing

 Inventory typically needs to be warehoused at selected times during the logistics process. Transportation vehicles require materials handling for efficient loading and unloading. The individual products are most efficiently handled when pachaged together into shipping cartons or other unit loads.(5)Facility Network

In business operations, the number, size, and geographical relationship of facilities used to perform logistical operations directly impacts customer service capabilities and cost.Typical logistical facilities:

 Manufacturing plants

 Warehouses

 Cross-dock operations

 Retail stores

六、Logistical Operations

(1)Inventory flow

As products and materials are procured, a value-added inventory flow is initiated, which ultimately results in ownership transfer of finished products to customers.Three areas of logistical operations:

 Market distribution

The movement of finished products to customers is market distribution. Manufacturing support The area of manufacturing support concentrates on managing work-in-process inventory as it flows between stages of manufacturing. Procurement

Procurement is concerned with purchasing and arranging inbound movement of materials, parts, and/or finished inventory from suppliers to manufacturing or assembly plants, warehouses, or retail stores.(2)Information flow

Information from and about customers flows through the enterprise in the form of sales activity, forecasts, and orders.Vital information is refined into specific manufacturing, merchandising, and purchasing plans.Information flow identifies specific locations within a logistical system that have requirements.The primary objective of information flow management is to reconcile these differentials to improve overall supply chain performance.Information requirements parallel the actual work performed in market distribution, manufacturing support, and procurements.七、小结并布置作业：

7.专业英语unit18译文 篇七

石油加工

石油，是有机物经过一千年自然变化后的产物，它以几乎令人难以置信的数量在地表下累积，它已被人类发现，并用以满足我们各种各样的燃料需求。因为它是数千种有机物的混合物，它已被证明可适应我们变化的需求。通过加工或精炼的变化模式，它已变得适应于多种燃料的生产，并且通过化学变化，它也变得可适应许多纯化学物质，也就是石油化学产品的生产。现代的装置时时刻刻都在运作。首先一个管式加热器为高效蒸馏塔提供热油，高效蒸馏塔利用沸点将原料分离，得到类似于从间歇蒸馏釜中所得的产品，但是它们分离得更加彻底。然后后面的装置将原油中不太畅销的部分（即所谓的下半桶）转变为我们想要的畅销的产品。使用的工序包括多种裂化装置（将大分子裂解为小分子）、聚合、重组、氢化裂解、氢化处理、异构化、被称为焦化的严苛加工，实际上还有很多其他设计的用以改变沸点和分子结构的工序。

1.石油的组成

原油由数千种不同化学物质组成，从甲烷到柏油，气体、液体和固体都有。其中绝大部分组成是碳氢化合物，但是也有大量的含氮（0——0.5%）、硫（0——6%）和氧（0——3.5%）的复合物。在任何原油中没有哪种单一组成大量存在。

脂肪族化合物，或开链碳氢化合物

正烷烃系列或正构烷烃，CnH2n+2。在绝大多数原油中，这个系列比其他任何组分占据更大的部分。绝大多数直馏（也就是从原油中直接蒸馏）汽油是占主导地位的n——石蜡系列。这些原料抗爆性能差。

异构烷烃系列或异链烷烃，CnH2n+2。在内燃机中，这些支链化合物比正烷烃燃烧更佳，因此其更令人满意。可以通过催化重整、烷基化、聚合或异构化得到它们。原油中只有少量存在。

烯烃或烯烃系列，CnH2n。在原油中通常没有这个系列，但是精炼过程，比如裂化（将大分子裂解为小分子），可以得到它们。这些相对不稳定的分子提高了汽油的抗爆性能，虽然不如异构烷烃有效。储存期间，它们会发生聚合和氧化反应，这是我们不愿看到的。然而，通过副反应，这种特有的反应趋势使得它们可以形成其他化合物和石油化学产品。乙烯、丙烯和丁烯就是例子。裂化汽油含有大量烯烃。

环状化合物

环烷系列或环烷烃，CnH2n。不要跟萘混淆了，这个系列有着和烯烃相同的化学式，但是缺少它们的不稳定性和反应性，因为他们的分子结构是饱和的，并且像烷烃一样难以反应，在绝大多数原油中，这些化合物的含量排名第二。这个系列中的初级烃是很好的燃料，从各种原油中分离得到柴油和润滑油，其中大分子量的环烷烃占据主导地位。

芳香族或苯型系列，CnH2n-6。在绝大多数普通原油中，这个系列只有少量，但是它们在汽油中非常有用，因为他们有高的抗震价值、高的储存稳定性和除作为燃料以外的很多用途。很多芳香族化合物可通过精炼过程得到。这样的例子有：苯、甲苯、乙苯和二甲苯。

小分子化合物。在石油中，硫总是我们不想看到的成分。它原有的强烈的令人不愉快的气味使得它在汽油和煤油馏分中被排除。化学反应首先旨在于消除这种气味。后来发现硫化合物还有其他我们不想看到的影响（腐蚀、削弱四乙基铅作为抗爆剂的作用、空气污染）。现在，只要有可能，硫化合物都会被除去，并且被除去的硫往往会被还原为单质硫。氮化合物造成的问题比硫化合物少，它的气味没有那么令人不快，所以通常就被忽略了。

随着催化裂化和精加工工艺的普遍采用，我们发现痕量金属（铁、钼、钠、镍、钒等）的出现是一件令人讨厌的事，因为它们是强催化剂毒物。现在除去这些物质物质的方法已经成熟。多年来，盐是一个主要问题。实际上它总是出现在原油中，并且通常以乳状液的形式存在，它必须除去以避免造成腐蚀。它降低了烃转变为盐酸的反应热。机械或电脱盐是绝大多数石油加工步骤的准备工作。

各种原油差别很大，每种原油都有不同的精炼过程。根据简单蒸馏后所得残余物的不同，石蜡基、沥青基、环烷基和混合基这些术语通常被用来区别不同原油。

通过精炼过程，纯净的化合物不会被规律地分离。在石油产品生产中，较简单的和小分子量化合物中的一些化合物被隔离。绝大多数石油产品是根据沸点范围分离得到的混合物，并且通过它们最终适应的用途来对其进行确定。常见的炼油部分是：

天然的或油井的 中间馏分

蜡（蜡烛、密封油、纸张处理、绝缘材料）汽油和天然气

重燃油

残余物 液化石油气

内燃机油

润滑油 轻馏分

柴油

燃油 动力汽油

重馏分

石蜡油 溶剂石脑油

重质矿物油

铺路沥青 喷气式发动机燃料

（药物）

柏油 煤油

重质浮选油

焦炭 轻质燃料油

润滑油

2.精炼产品

石油化学产品的产物母体。随着市场的变化，用以生产石油化学产品的原料也在不断变化。几乎任何想得到的合成体都会带来一个问题，那就是如何利用可得到的设备以低成本获得它。在较早的时候，乙炔被广泛用来生产石油化学产品，但是乙炔的生产和储存有难度，所以现在乙烯变成了进一步合成所需的主要原材料。一般，通过分解被称为进料的大分子所得到的反应物就是产物母体。乙烯的来源一般有：液化石油气、石脑油、柴油、柴油机燃料、乙烷、丙烷和丁烷，关于煤的新的可能性不久就会被探索，并且液化煤的一些测试也早已完成。主要的产物母体有：

乙炔

丙烯

苯

二甲苯 乙烯

丁烯

甲苯

萘

乙烯是最大量的有机材料，可从馏出物、天然气或液态天然气中得到。乙烯的生产条件处于精炼和化工生产之间的状态。非常大的工厂已经建立且正在建立。一些工厂有年产7×10^8kg产品的生产能力。

除了作为乙烯的副产物，丙烯很少得到。乙烯的蒸汽裂化生产丙烯最多，事实上所有的丙烯都是用来生产多聚物的。主要作为化工生产的剩余物来自石油精炼厂的液体催化裂化装置。精炼厂所得丙烯主要用来进行烷基化。

芳香族化合物通常被认为是从煤中得到的，但是在1980年，从这个来源中所得的量几乎是难以察觉的小，苯的含量为4%，甲苯的含量为0.9%，而二甲苯的含量则只有0.1%。环己烷或取代环己烷脱氢作用，甲基环戊烷芳构化和甲苯或二甲苯脱甲基作用都可以得到苯。对芳香族化合物的需求是巨大的，人们正在注意寻找催化剂以生产BTX（苯-甲苯-二甲苯）作为化学和高级的燃料用途。萘的使用量较初级芳香族化合物少，但是它的消费是不可小觑的。一个选定的重整油流，使用铬酸铝碳化物催化剂进行脱烷作用，所得的产品比成型的煤焦油更加纯净。

轻馏分。航空汽油、（汽车）动力汽油、石脑油、石油溶剂、喷气式发动机燃料和煤油就是通常被视为轻馏分的馏分。任何给定的精炼厂很少生产所有这些轻馏分。汽油是最重要的产品，并且现在大约45%的原油加工最终都得到汽油。

中间馏分。这些馏分包括柴油、轻重家庭炉用油、内燃机燃料和用以裂化生产更多汽油的馏分。这些馏分主要用以作为交通工具燃料，如重型卡车、铁路、小型商业船，它们还用在备用设备、调峰电厂、农场设备和有用以提供动力的内燃机的任何地方。家用加热炉也使用这些馏分。

重馏分。它们被转变为润滑油、作为多种燃料用途的重油、蜡和裂化原料。剩余物。甚至在真空中，一些组分因不易挥发而无法蒸馏。这些组分包括柏油、残余燃料油、焦炭和石蜡油。这些难以出售的材料是精炼过程的副产品，虽然很多是相当有用的，但是绝大多数都难以处理，并且相对来说获利较少。石油提炼所得的化学制品，也就是通常我们所知道的石油化学产品，是由石油和天然气得到的。其中一些产品的产量非常大，并且超过1000种的有机化学制品是从石油中获得的。这样的例子有炭黑、丁二烯、苯乙烯、乙烯、乙二醇、聚乙烯等。

3.处理或精炼

精炼涉及分离工序和转变工序两个主要分支。尤其是在转变领域，当中确实有许多工序需要使用，并且很多都被注册了专利。甚至在一家精炼单一原油的工厂，为了适应市场的变化和转化设备参数的变化，日常的调整时常发生。在任何一天，没有哪一家精炼厂会精确按照预定计划运转，但是所有精炼厂都会按照指示的底线运转。分离工序。石油精炼中所使用的单元操作都是简单常见的，但是它们之间的相互联系和相互影响可能是复杂的。绝大多数主要的单元操作是蒸馏。原油蒸馏釜由热交换器、炉、分馏塔、蒸汽汽提塔、冷凝器、冷却器和辅助设备组成。单元操作中通常有供应槽作为临时储存之用；当中往往也有处理罐，以提高色彩并去除令人讨厌的组分，尤其是硫；还有混合搅拌罐、用以进行原油供料的收集槽和贮槽、一个蒸汽回收系统、泄漏和火警控制系统和其他辅助设备。精炼厂作为一个整体，还会有锅炉房，通常也有发电系统。仪表室中有用以测量、记录和控制的仪器，它与原料保持联系以保证热量和原料的平衡，所以仪表室构成了系统的心脏。这些仪器的主要功能之一是保证已用材料和功用的精确记账。

转变工序。大约70%被加工的原油服从正碳离子机理和自由基机理出现的转变过程。催化剂存在下，温度和压力决定哪种机理占优势。以下是发生的更为重要的基础反应的例子：裂化或热解、聚合、烷基化、加氢作用、氢化裂解、异构化、重组和芳构化。